CSP-2015: Key to the World Geography Test-2 Dt.15.02.2015

CSP-2015: Key to the World Geography Test-2 Dt.15.02.2015

1.	c	21.	c	41.	d
2.	b	22.	a	42.	c
3.	a	23.	c	43.	d
4.	c	24.	c	44.	c
5.	b	25.	c	45.	b
6.	c	26.	a	46.	a
7.	c	27.	c	47.	a
8.	a	28.	a	48.	b
9.	*	29.	b	49.	b
10.	c	30.	a	50.	d
11.	d	31.	b	51.	b
12.	d	32.	a	52.	c
13.	c	33.	d	53.	a
14.	a	34.	b	54.	c
15.	a	35.	c	55.	c
16.	b	36.	b	56.	d
17.	c	37.	b	57.	c
18.	c	38.	a	58.	b
19.	d	39.	a	59.	c
20.	c	40.	c	60.	c

Explanation:

2. Water in the earth layers is limited to lithosphere only. [The detail notes on fresh water is given in Geography test 1]

3. Statement 3 is only correct. The Atlantic Ocean, not the Pacific Ocean, has the longest coast line due to the presence of several big islands such as Greenland and Iceland and wavy coast of the countries located on its shores. Most of the productive fishing zones in the world are located in the North Atlantic Ocean and North Pacific Ocean, but not in the South Atlantic Ocean. The mid-Atlantic Ocean ridge is the longest Mountain range in the World as it spreads from North to South in that Ocean and obviously, it is bigger than the Andes of South America. If the question is on longest mountain range on, it is the Andes; otherwise, it is the mid-Atlantic Oceanic mountain range.   

4. There is an intricate link between fishing zones of the world and confluence of warm and cold currents. The meeting of cold waters of Iceland and British Isles and the warm North Atlantic drift promotes the plankton growth and thereby fish. Similarly, warm Gulf Stream and cold Labrador Current makes the Grand banks off Newfoundland and North eastern USA as a major fishing zone and in the Peruvian coast, the work is done by cold Peruvian Current and warm Northern Counter Equatorial Current.

5 and 51. The Pacific Ocean encompasses approximately one-third of the Earth's surface and larger than Earth's entire landmass. [Size of the Pacific Ocean is 165.2 million square kilometers (63.8 million square miles), as against Earth’s 150 million square kilometers (58 million square miles).]. It is triangular in shape. Largest Ocean. It harbors largest number of Atolls, largest and deepest oceanic trenches and largest number of islands including, Micronesia, Melanesia and Polynesian island groups. The Ocean provides for largest fishing grounds and accounts for 60% of the fish catch in the World with Japan, China, Australia and New Zealand at the helm of affairs. It has richest resources of oil and gas and largest amounts of poly-metallic nodules in its bottom.

First two statements are correct in Q.No.51. As stated above it is the Pacific Ocean, not Indian Ocean, which has largest quantities of poly-metallic nodules.  At the cost of repetition, Indian Ocean is regarded as “half Ocean” as its distribution is restricted to Southern Hemisphere; it is the only Ocean named after a country, i.e., India.  

6. Both the statements are correct. The continental shelf is an underwater landmass which extends from a continent, resulting in an area of relatively shallow water known as a shelf sea. The shelf surrounding an island is known as an insular shelf. Much of the shelves were exposed during glacial and interglacial periods. Most commercial exploitation from the sea, such as metallic-ore, non-metallic ore, and hydrocarbon extraction, takes place on the continental shelf. 

The largest shelf – the Siberian Shelf in the Arctic Ocean – stretches to 1,500 kilometers (930 mi) in width.

8.  See the explanation for the question 15.

9. Statements 2, 3 and 4 are correct. Statement 1 is not correct. The salinity is lesser at Equatorial region due to heavy rain fall and less relatively evaporation when compared to tropics from 5 degrees to 30 degrees south and north of Equator. The salinity of the water bodies is maximum in tropical regions due to heavy evaporation and inflow of salts from the rivers adding to the salt content. This further reduces towards temperate regions and lowest near poles. Even in the same latitudes, the salinity of enclosed seas is higher than in the open seas. [You may also refer to detailed explanation with examples given in Geography test 1].  

11. It is the question on correct matching. Correct answer is “d”.  Coral Sea is located in the Pacific Ocean, North East of Australian continent, not in South Atlantic Ocean as given in the question. As the name indicates, the sea is full of corals and part of one of the UNESCO Heritage habitats in the World. [See the explanation for the question 32.]

14. The Amazon River is the largest river basin in the world and discharges largest fresh water into the Atlantic Ocean. Its discharge of water into the Ocean is greater than the next seven largest independent rivers combined. Hence, correct answer is “a”.

15. The latitudinal distribution of temperature on the Oceans is called “horizontal distribution of temperature”. The distribution of temperature in the water body from surface to its bottom is called “Vertical distribution of temperature”.  The surface temperature of the Ocean or sea varies with the latitude. It would be more in the tropics when compared to temperate zones and further less in the Poles. The surface temperature of the Oceans or seas remains almost constant up to 100m depth, but below this depth temperature continuously falls and the deepest part of the sea is always coldest. This is because of the fact that surface of the water body has the maximum exposure to the sun’s energy. Thus, all the warm currents originate near the equator and move towards poles.

The annual range [difference between the minimum and maximum temperature of water in a year] of the surface temperature of Ocean is very low. This is due to two unusual properties of water,

ü  High specific heat capacity and

ü  High heat of vaporization (40.65 kJ/mol or 2257 kJ/kg at the normal boiling point).

Water has a very high specific heat capacity, the second highest among all the hetero-atomic species. [Ammonia has highest specific heat capacity under the category]. Both of these properties are as a result of the extensive hydrogen bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature. The oceans absorb one thousand times more heat than the atmosphere (air) and are holding 80 to 90% of the heat of global warming.

The annual range of temperature is more near the coast and less in the open sea. This is due to the fact that land gets heated very fast and loses heat also very fast. The overheating of the land has its effect on the heating on the water adjacent to it and further shallow water is tends to be heated more than open sea. Hence, the range of temperature is little bit more near the coast than in open water.

[Important Additional information: The melting ice absorbs the same energy as ice warming from -160 degrees Celsius up to its melting point. This property confers resistance to melting on the ice of glaciers and drift ice. Before and since the advent of mechanical refrigeration, ice was and still is in common use for retarding food spoilage. Further, the water has maximum density at 4 degree Celsius, but not at 0 degree Celsius and below this temperature, water shrinks to become ice at 0 degrees. In other words, ice is less dense than water and thus ice floats on the water. This is the only reason why the lakes, seas and Oceans in the Polar Regions froze from the top and still allow animals to live in the water below the ice.]

16. The landlocked seas in the world are Aral Sea, Caspian Sea, Dead Sea, Great Salt Lake, Salton Sea and Sea of Galilee. Landlocked seas may are also considered lakes as the definition of a lake is "a large body of freshwater surrounded by land. Hence, in the instant question the only enclosed seas are Sea of Galilee in Israel [The Sea of Galilee, also Kinneret, Lake of Gennesaret, or Lake Tiberias, is the largest freshwater lake in Israel] and Salton Sea, California, USA. [The Salton Sea is a shallow, saline, Rift Lake located directly on the San Andreas Fault, predominantly in California of USA]

The Bismarck Sea lies in the southwestern Pacific Ocean to the north of the island of Papua New Guinea and to the south of the Bismarck Archipelago and Admiralty Islands. Celebes Sea is located in Western Pacific Ocean, east to Borneo Island and north of Indonesia. Coral Sea is already explained above. 

17. The Wallace Line is an imaginary boundary that runs between Australia and the Asian islands and mainland. This boundary marks the point where there is a difference in species on either side of the line. To the west of the line, all of the species are similar or derived from species that are found on the Asian mainland. To the east of the line, there are many species that of Australian descent. Wallace's Line delineates Australian and Southeast Asian fauna. The probable extent of land at the time of the last glacial maximum, when the sea level was more than 110 m lower than today, is shown in grey. The deep water of the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok formed a water barrier even when lower sea levels linked the now-separated islands and landmasses on either side

Wallace's Line delineates Australian and Southeast Asian fauna. The probable extent of land at the time of the last glacial maximum, when the sea level was more than 110 m lower than today, is shown in grey. The deep water of the Lombok Strait between Bali and Lombok formed a water barrier even when lower sea levels linked the now-separated islands and landmasses on either side.

 

19. UNCLOS divides the sea into various legal zones, with the state’s sovereignty decreasing with increasing distance from the coast. Every state has the right to territorial sea, not exceeding 12 nautical miles, in addition to its internal waters. In the territorial sea, the sovereignty of the coastal state is already restricted under international law, as ships of all states enjoy the right of innocent passage through it. The water zone next to territorial sea is contiguous zone. This zone extends up to 24 nautical miles from the baseline, within which a state can exert limited control for the purpose of preventing or punishing "infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea". In the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), which extends for up to 200 nautical miles, the coastal state has sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting the natural resources, whether living or non-living, of the waters. On the continental shelf, which may extend beyond the EEZ, the coastal state has sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting the natural resources, whether living or non-living, on or under the seabed.

In view of the above, under UNCLOS, the coastal State has sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting the natural resources across EEZ and even up to the continental shelf if it goes beyond EEZ.  Thus, the 4^th statement is wrong and first three are correct.

22 and 23. The Montreux Convention Regarding the Regime of the Straits is a 1936 agreement that gives Turkey control over the Bosporus straits  and the Dardanelles and regulates the transit of naval warships. The Convention gives Turkey full control over the Straits and guarantees the free passage of civilian vessels in peacetime. It restricts the passage of naval ships not belonging to Black Sea states. The terms of the convention have been the source of controversy over the years, most notably concerning the Soviet Union’s military access to the Mediterranean Sea. Signed on 20 July 1936 at the Montreux Palace in Switzerland, it permitted Turkey to remilitarize the Straits. It went into effect on 9 November 1936 and was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on 11 December 1936. It is still in force today, with some amendments.

The proposed controversial 21st century “Kanal Istanbul project” may constitute a possible by-pass to the Montreux Convention and force greater Turkish autonomy with respect to the passage of military ships from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara. The project under consideration, intended to connect the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara is wished to be completed for the  100^th anniversary in 2023 of the foundation of the Turkish Republic.

25 & 26. The location of cold currents and deserts are linked intricately. The winds blowing from the Oceans/Seas carry moisture and cause rainfall in the land. The nature of currents washing the coasts and nature of winds blowing in certain regions mostly in western part of the continents contribute to the formation of the deserts.

Role of prevailing winds in forming the deserts:

The prevailing winds, i.e. those blows for most of the year, blow from the east. By the time they reach the interior of the continental areas they have lost the moisture they carried in from the oceans. This is often because mountain barriers have forced the winds to deposit their moisture on the eastern parts of the continents and lose the moisture and become dry by that time they reach western part of the continent. Certain deserts lie on the leeward, i.e. downwind, side of the mountains. They are said to lie in a rain shadow area. Some of the desert areas of the United States, central Asia and Argentina have developed in rain shadow areas. Look in an atlas and see if you can find out the names of the mountain ranges that block the rain coming to these deserts.

Role of prevailing winds in forming the deserts:

Cold ocean currents bowing along the nearby coasts are another factor contributing to the formation of desert. Cold ocean currents cool the lower layers of the atmosphere. Not only does the air not pick up any moisture as it blows across these currents but it is more likely to lose moisture. This cool dry air moves in over the land where it is warmed. As it warms, it expands and has room to carry the moisture that it picks up from the land area. Moisture is evaporated from the land rather than deposited upon it.

32 & 55. Reef-building corals cannot tolerate water temperatures below 64° Fahrenheit (18° Celsius). Many grow optimally in water temperatures between 73° and 84° Fahrenheit (23°–29°Celsius), but some can tolerate temperatures as high as 104° Fahrenheit (40° Celsius) for short periods.

Most reef-building corals also require very saline/salty water ranging from 32 to 42 parts per thousand. This is the reason why all corals are completely marine. They never live in estuaries and mouths of the rivers as they would not get the salinity of 32 to 42 ppt and also muddy water lacks transparency required for carrying sun rays to corals.

The water must also be clear so that a maximum amount of light penetrates it. This is because most reef-building corals contain photosynthetic algae, called zooxanthellae, which live in their tissues. The corals and algae have a unique relationship. The coral provides the algae with a protected environment and compounds they need for photosynthesis. In return, the algae produce oxygen and help the coral to remove wastes. Most importantly, zooxanthellae supply the coral with food. The algae need light in order to produce food via photosynthesis.

                              Distribution of corals in the World

One interesting research found that corals are distributed beyond tropics for a brief period during summer in Northern Hemisphere. This is due to shifting of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone or ITCZ beyond tropics. [This is a belt of low pressure which circles the Earth generally near the equator where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres come together.]. These temporary hot conditions for few months create congenial conditions of temperature and salinity for the growth of corals in the oceans beyond tropical zone. Example corals are found in summer in North Atlantic Ocean.    Hence, the correct option is “a”.  

Corals are very productive zones of Oceans. They are compared to tropical evergreen forests in term of biodiversity and productivity is concerned. As stated elsewhere, atolls are type of corals mostly distributed in the Pacific Ocean.

35. Except where otherwise provided in this Convention, the normal baseline for measuring the breadth of the territorial sea is the low-water line along the coast as marked on large-scale charts officially recognized by the coastal State. It is the line from which the territorial waters/contiguous zone & EEZ under UNCLOS are measured. The system of straight baselines may not be applied by a State in such a manner as to cut off the territorial sea of another State from the high seas or an exclusive economic zone. The UNCLOS clearly defined and provided methodology of drawing baselines on the basis of shape of the coastline. The method differs for the archipelago countries and other countries. 

36, 37 & 40. The International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS) is an intergovernmental organization created by the mandate of the UNCLOS-III. It was established by the UNCLOS, signed at Montego Bay, Jamaica, on December 10, 1982. The Convention entered into force on November 16, 1994, and established an international framework for law over "all ocean space, its uses and resources". The Tribunal   is based in Hamburg, Germany. The Convention also established the International Seabed Authority, with responsibility for the regulation of seabed mining beyond the limits of national jurisdiction that is beyond the limits of the territorial sea, the contiguous zone and the continental shelf.

The Tribunal has the power to settle disputes between party states (there are currently 161: 160 states plus the European Union).

The Straddling Fish Stocks Agreement (formally, the Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks) is a multilateral treaty created by the United Nations to enhance the cooperative management of fisheries resources that span wide areas, and are of economic and environmental concern to a number of nations. As of September 2014, the treaty had been ratified by 82 parties, which includes 81 states and the European Union.

Straddling stocks are fish stocks that migrate through, or occur in, more than one EEZ. The Agreement was adopted in 1995, and came into force in 2001.

Highly migratory fish is a term which has its origins in the UNCLOS.  It refers to fish species which undertake ocean migrations and also have wide geographic distributions, and usually denotes tuna and tuna-like species, Shark, Marlin and Swordfish. Straddling fish stocks are especially vulnerable to overexploitation because of ineffective management regimes and noncompliance by fishing interests.

United Nations Environment Programme [UNEP]: 

Under UNEP, there are two conventions working towards protection and conservation of marine mammals and bio-diversity of Oceans/Seas. They are Convention on Biological Diversity and Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 

1. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD):

Signed by 150 government leaders at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit, the Convention on Biological Diversity is dedicated to promoting sustainable development. Conceived as a practical tool for translating the principles of Agenda 21 into reality, the Convention recognizes that biological diversity is about more than plants, animals and microorganisms and their ecosystems – it is about people and our need for food security, medicines, fresh air and water, shelter, and a clean and healthy environment in which to live.

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is a multilateral treaty. The Convention has three main goals:

1.   conservation of biological diversity (or biodiversity);

2.   sustainable use of its components; and

3.   fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources

In other words, its objective is to develop national strategies for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. It is often seen as the key document regarding sustainable development .

The Convention was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993.

At the 2010 10th Conference of Parties (COP) to the Convention on Biological Diversity in October in Nagoya , Japan, the Nagoya Protocol was adopted. On 22 December 2010, the UN declared the period from 2011 to 2020 as the UN Decade on Biodiversity. They, hence, followed a recommendation of the CBD signatories during COP10 at Nagoya in October 2010.

2. The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals:

It is more commonly abbreviated to just the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) or the Bonn Convention-aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range. It is an intergovernmental treaty, concluded under the aegis of the UNEP, concerned with the conservation of wildlife and habitats on a global scale. Since the Convention's entry into force, its membership has grown steadily to include over 100 Parties from Africa, Central and South America, Asia, Europe and Oceania. The Convention was signed in 1979 in Bad Godesberg, a suburb of Bonn (hence the name), and entered into force in 1983. The depositary is the government of the Federal Republic of Germany. The CMS is the only global and UN-based intergovernmental organization established exclusively for the conservation and management of terrestrial, aquatic and avian migratory species throughout their range. CMS and its daughter agreements determine policy and provide further guidance on specific issues through their Strategic Plans, Action Plans, resolutions, decisions and guidelines. All maintain on their websites a list of all decisions taken, guidelines issues and Action Plans adopted by the Member States.

FAO and International Whaling Commission are also involved in conservation of marine resources and mammals.

39. The Arctic is a region of greater economic and environmental importance than is suggested by its relatively small area and remoteness. The Arctic Ocean comprises only about 5 percent of the area of the global ocean yet contains about 25 percent of the global continental shelf. Arctic continental shelves are rich in mineral resources but remain relatively unexplored due to climatic conditions. But, due to high melting of ice during summers and forming of shipping channels would pave way for the exploration of these resources.  Further, the Arctic Ocean accounts for only about 1.5 percent of the volume of the global ocean, yet receives about 10 percent of global river runoff, and thus is influenced by inflow of fresh water and entrained materials to a greater extent than other oceans. Because of the great commercial and environmental significance of the region, it is of vital importance to gain fundamental knowledge about the Arctic Ocean and adjacent ice-bearing seas (e.g., the Chukchi and Bering), as well as the processes that link this area to the global system. In view of this first 3 points are correct and the fourth one is wrong.

41. The world’s largest island is Greenland which is located in northern Atlantic Ocean. If we exclude Australia as an island, because it is counted as a continent and country, the second largest island is New Guinea and the third is Borneo of Indonesia, Malaysia and Brunei. New Guinea and Borneo are located in the Pacific Ocean. Hence, both the statements are not correct. If we include Australia in the list of the islands, the answer will not change as Australia is also located in the Pacific/Indian Ocean.

42. Both the statements are correct. Maritime Effect and Continental Effect: An inland location is further away from the sea, while a coastal location is close to the sea. The land heats up and cools down more quickly than the sea. During the summer, the air over the land heats up quickly, while the air over the sea remains relatively cool because the sea gains heat much slower than the land. Onshore winds blow cooler air towards the land, lowering the summer temperatures of the areas along the coast. During winter, the air over the sea remains relatively warm compared to the air over the land because the sea loses heat slower than the land. The onshore winds blow warmer air towards the land, raising the winter temperatures of the coastal areas. As a result of the maritime effect, the coastal areas are likely to experience cooler summers and warmer winters. Hence, there is a smaller difference between summer and winter temperatures. As a result of the continental effect, the sea does not influence the temperatures of places inland. Instead, these places are likely to experience warmer summers and colder winters and hence have a large difference between summer and winter temperatures.  For example, let us take two Indian cities based on their location from the coast, New Delhi and Mumbai. The New Delhi is located in the interior position, long away from the coast face extreme climatic conditions. The winters are severely cold and summers are extremely hot. On the other hand Mumbai city is located on the Arabian coast.  Its summers are not harsh and winters are warmer.

44. The details of countries visited by Indian PM and the purpose of visit are depicted in the following table. Given the latest trends of UPSC questioning pattern, you may focus on these countries from the perspective of Physiography, Economic and Human Geography. 

	Country & time of visit	Purpose
1	Bhutan June, 2014	Modi made his first foreign visit to Bhutan following an invitation by King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck and Tobgay. The visit was called by the media as a "charm offensive" that would also seek to check Bhutan-China relations that had recently been formalized. He also sought to build business ties, including a hydro-electric deal, and inaugurated the India-funded Supreme Court of Bhutan building. While talking about the visit, Modi said that Bhutan was a "natural choice" for his first foreign destination because of the "unique and special relationship" the two countries shared. He added that he was looking forward to nurture and further strengthens India's special relations with Bhutan. He was further set to discuss the insurgency in Northeast India, and China.
2	Brazil July 2014	In July 2014, he visited Brazil for his first multilateral visit, the 6th BRICS summit was held at the north-eastern beach city of Fortaleza. In the Fortaleza summit the group have agreed to establish a financial institution rivaling the western dominated World Bank and IMF, The bank would be named the New Development Bank as suggested by the Indian side but Modi govt. failed to bag the bank's headquarter for New Delhi, which would be located in Shanghai, China. Later the BRICS leader also attended an event in Brasilia where they met the UNASUR heads of government.
3	Nepal August, 2014	Modi arrived for a two-day visit to Nepal on 3 August. The last visit of an Indian prime minister to Nepal was 17 years ago in 1997 by I. K. Gujral. The talks with Nepal were focused on reviewing the 1950's Treaty of Peace and Friendship, India-funded hydroelectricity projects in Nepal and other infrastructure projects in Nepal. Following Jana Andolan, that marked the beginning of constitutional democracy in 1990, Modi became the first foreign leader to address the Parliament of Nepal. The Western media read it as a shift in foreign affairs for India, as well as a Nepal policy shift.[14] He did puja at the fifth centuryHindu Pashupatinath temple (where he donated Rs. 25 crores and the head priest, Mool Bhatta Ganesh Bhatta, said: "I told him that we see him as a mascot for Hinduism, and appreciate his efforts in saving Hindu culture"). Further he pledged not to interfere in Nepal's internal affairs (following controversy of appointment of Indian priests at a Nepali temple, Modi announced a credit assistance programme of US$1 billion to Nepal and said "Nepal can free India of its darkness with its electricity. But we don't want free electricity, we want to buy it. Just by selling electricity to India, Nepal can find a place in the developed countries of the world." He also told Nepali MPs he wanted to turn India's "hostile borders benign and ultimately gateways for free trade and commerce...borders must be bridges not barriers." The Kathmandu Post reacted in writing: "Modi mantra warms Nepal's hearts. "The New York Times also suggested the lack of a meeting with former King Gyanendra signified that India would not support a return to monarchy despite the lack of a new constitution of Nepal. The commonality of a majority Hindu heritage was also played up
4	Japan Aug-Sept. 2014	He visited Japan on a five-day official trip from 30 August to 3 September which is labeled as his fist bilateral state visit outside the subcontinent. His 2014 visit further strengthened the ties between the two countries, and resulted in several key agreements, including the elevating the already established strategic partnership to the "Special Strategic Global Partnership". During his visit official negotiations have progressed on the sale of US 2 amphibious aircraft for Indian Navy and the long pending civil nuclear agreements
5	USA Sept. 2014	Modi delivered his maiden speech in the sixty-ninth session of the United Nations General Assembly on 27 September 2014, where he called for reform and expansion of United Nations Security Council including India's long standing demand of a permanent membership. He expressed his concerns over the relevance of a 20th century setup in 21st century and the need to evaluate UN's performance in the past 70 years. He had also argued why UN should serve as G-All for global governance instead of several parallel sub-groupings like G7, G20etc. In the wake of ISIS threat in West Asia and similar in other parts of the globe he urged for immediate implementation of 'Comprehensive on International Terrorism' by the UN and offered India's pro-active role in it citing India as a victim of terrorism for decades. Prior to his speech he along with External Affairs Minister Swaraj met UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon and discussed UN governance relating issues. Ridiculing the possibility of any multilateral intervention, a demand Sharif has made in his address at the UNGA on 26 September, on Kashmir related mater he stated that his govt is ready for 'bilateral talk' to Pakistan provided Pakistan should cultivate suitable environment for talks by giving up terrorism policy against India.[24] Modi commented briefly on climate change and use of clean energy, in this regards he also asked world leaders and UN officials for observing Yoga Day, emphasizing the importance of incorporating Yoga in modern day life style. Modi fasted during a White House dinner in his honor
6	Myanmar Nov. 2014	East Asia Summit
7	Australia Nov. 2014	G20 Summit & State visit
8	Fiji Nov. 2014	In more than 33 years Modi became the first Indian head of government to visit Fiji after Indira Gandhi's visit in 1981. There he also attended a 'Forum for India-Pacific Island cooperation' along with leaders from all 14 Pacific islands nations
9	Nepal Nov. 2014	SAARC Summit
10	Seychelles March, 2015	As part of Modi's Indian Ocean outreach. He hold talks with President James Alexis Michel to strengthen maritime ties and enhance bilateral development cooperation
11	Mauritius March, 2015	Modi was the Chief guest at the Mauritian National Day on 12 March
12	Sri Lanka March, 2015	Earlier Modi was scheduled to visit Sri Lanka in January 2015, but following the inauguration of the new President Maithripala Sirisena, who will in turn pay a visit to New Delhi in February, Modi made his reciprocal visit to the island country from 13-15 March 2015. During this trip Modi also visited to Jafna in the Northern Province

46. The International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas [ICCAT] is an inter-governmental fishery organization responsible for the conservation of tunas and tuna-like species in the Atlantic Ocean and its adjacent seas. ICCAT compiles fishery statistics from its members and from all entities fishing for these species in the Atlantic Ocean, coordinates research, including stock assessment, on behalf of its members, develops scientific-based management advice, provides a mechanism for Contracting Parties to agree on management measures, and produces relevant publications. Science underpins the management decisions made by ICCAT. Much of the information available on this site relates to scientific data, reports of scientific meetings and to scientific articles.

49. International Seabed Authority is an intergovernmental organization set up under UNCLOS and has 159 members and the European Union, composed of all parties to the UNCLOS. The main mandate of ISA is to organize and control all mineral-related activities in the international seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction. There are no maps annexed to the Convention to delineate this area. Rather, UNCLOS outlines the areas of national jurisdiction, leaving the rest for the international portion. National jurisdiction over the seabed normally leaves off at 200 nautical miles (370 km) seaward from baselines running along the shore, unless a nation can demonstrate that its continental Shelf is naturally prolonged beyond that limit, in which case it may claim up to 350 nautical miles (650 km). ISA has no role in determining this boundary. Rather, this task is left to another body established by UNCLOS, the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf, which examines scientific data submitted by coastal states that claim a broader reach. Maritime boundaries between states are generally decided by bilateral negotiation (sometimes with the aid of judicial bodies), not by ISA. ISA give permits for exploitation of seabed minerals to the members. 

52 and 53. Tides refer to the rise and fall of our oceans’ surfaces. It is caused by the attractive forces of the Moon and Sun’s gravitational fields as well as the centrifugal force due to the Earth’s spin. As the positions of these celestial bodies change, so do the surfaces’ heights. For example, when the Sun and Moon are aligned with the Earth, water levels in ocean surfaces fronting them are pulled and subsequently rise.

The gravitational attraction of the moon causes the oceans to bulge out in the direction of the moon. Another bulge occurs on the opposite side, since the Earth is also attracting moon towards it. Hence, two tides occur each day. In 1687, Sir Isaac Newton explained that ocean tides result from the gravitational attraction of the sun and moon on the oceans of the earth. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that the gravitational attraction between two bodies is directly proportional to their masses, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the bodies. Therefore, the greater the mass of the objects and the closer they are to each other, the greater the gravitational attraction between them.

The Moon, although much smaller than the Sun, is much closer. Now, gravitational forces decrease rapidly as the distance between two masses widen. Thus, the Moon’s gravity has a larger effect on tides than the Sun. In fact, the Sun’s effect is only about half that of the Moon’s.

Since the total mass of the oceans does not change when this happens, part of it that was added to the high water regions must have come from somewhere. These mass-depleted regions then experience low water levels. Hence, if water on a beach near you is advancing, you can be sure that in other parts of the world, it is receding.

Most illustrations containing the Sun, Moon, Earth and tides depict tides to be most pronounced in regions near or at the equator. On the contrary, it is actually in these regions where the difference in high tide and low tide are not as great as those in other places in the world.

This is because the bulging of the oceans’ surface follows the Moon’s orbital plane. Now, this plane is not in line with the Earth’s equatorial plane. Instead, it actually makes a 23-degree angle relative to it. This essentially allows the water levels at the equator to seesaw within a relatively smaller range (compared to the ranges in other places) as the orbiting moon pulls the oceans’ water.

Not all tides are caused by the relative positions of these celestial bodies. Some bodies of water, like those that are relatively shallow compared to oceans, experience changing water levels because of variations in the surrounding atmospheric pressure. There are also other extreme situations wherein tides are manifested but have nothing to do with astronomical positioning.

Tsunami: A tidal wave or tsunami, for example, makes use of the word ‘tide’ and actually exhibits rise and fall of water levels (in fact, it is very noticeable). However, this phenomenon is caused entirely by a displacement of a huge amount of water due to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, underwater explosions, and others. All these causes take place on the Earth’s surface and have nothing to do with the Moon or Sun.

[Additional information: Our sun is 27 million times larger than our moon. Based on its mass, the sun's gravitational attraction to the Earth is more than 177 times greater than that of the moon to the Earth. If tidal forces were based solely on comparative masses, the sun should have a tide-generating force that is 27 million times greater than that of the moon. However, the sun is 390 times further from the Earth than is the moon. Thus, its tide-generating force is reduced by 390³, or about 59 million times less than the moon. Because of these conditions, the sun’s tide-generating force is about half that of the moon]  

55. There are three processes for the formation of nodules.

• Hydrogenous process whereby metals are supplied from the water column and these accrete on a suitable nuceli. Hydrogenous nodules have smooth surface texture and are rich in Fe, Co, Ti, P and Pb content. The Mn/Fe ratio of these nodules is ~1.
• Diagenetic process supplies metals from the underlying sediment through the pore water by remobilisation. Diagenetic nodules have rough surface texture and are rich in Mn, Cu, Ni and Zn content. The Mn/Fe ratio is more than 2.5.
• Mixed type which is a combination of hydrogenous and diagenetic types.

The following are some significant scientific results:

• Nodule grade (Cu+Ni+Co %) is inversely related to abundance (kg/sq m).
• Manganese and iron show inverse relation suggesting their different source.
• Nodules with 2 to 6 cm size have high Mn, Cu, Ni and Zn concentration.
• Nodules grow with 1-2 mm per million year.
• Rare earth elements are supplied to nodules in association with Fe, Ti and P from the seawater.

Nodules of the Central Indian Ocean Basin (CIOB) 

The formation of ferromanganese nodules on the ocean floor requires a nucleus, low sedimentation rate, oxidizing conditions and low velocity bottom currents.  Bottom topography also plays an important role in the distribution of manganese nodules. The highest manganese concentration are generally found in nodules collected from high relief areas like valleys, followed by hilltops and slopes. Nodule abundance is least in the plains but have the highest content of Mn, Cu, Ni. In contrast, nodules from hilltop have lowest concentrations of these metals. The size of nodule ranges between 2 and 10 cm in diameter, with a majority of them lying between 2 and 4 cm size range. Nodules in the CIOB are associated with practically all types of sediment and the nodule abundance varies from traces to 20 kg/m.

Nodules from siliceous sediment are smaller in size, rough surface texture, with todorokite as a dominant mineral enriched in Mn, Cu, Ni and Zn suggesting their supply through early digenetic process.

Ferromanganese nodules from red clay area are enriched in Fe, Co, Ti and P suggesting their supply mainly by hydrogenetic process. Rare earth elements are highly enriched in these nodules (~800 ppm) and are generally carried by a single authigenic phase consisting of Fe-Ti-P suggestive of their supply by seawater.

58. A tidal bore, often simply given as bore in context, is a tidal phenomenon in which the leading edge of the incoming tide forms a wave (or waves) of water that travels up a river or narrow bay against the direction of the river or bay's current. Bore occurs in the rivers mouths of rivers such as Amazon, Hooghly, Colorado, and Yangtze. The tidal bores may be dangerous and many bores have had a sinister reputation: the River Seine (France); the Petitcodiac River (Canada); and the Colorado River (Mexico), to name a few. In China, despite warning signs erected along the banks of the Qiantang River, a number of tragic accidents happen each year. The tidal bores affect the shipping and navigation in the estuarine zone, for example, in Papua New Guinea (Fly and Bamu Rivers), Malaysia (Benak at Batang Lupar), and  India (Hoogly bore).

On the other hand, the tidal-bore affected estuaries are the rich feeding zones and breeding grounds of several forms of wildlife. The estuarine zones are the spawning and breeding grounds of several native fish species, while the aeration induced by the tidal bore contribute to the abundant growth of many species of fish and shrimps 

60. Pelagic sediment or pelagite is fine-grained sediment that accumulates as the result of the settling of particles to the floor of the open ocean, far from land. These particles consist primarily of either the microscopic, calcareous or siliceous shells of phytoplankton or zooplankton. Trace amounts of meteoric dust and variable amounts of volcanic ash also occur within pelagic sediments. Based upon the composition of the ooze, there are three main types of pelagic sediments

ü  Calcareous oozes

ü  Red clays    and

ü  Siliceous oozes

Calcareous ooze is ooze that is composed of at least 30% of the calcareous microscopic shells—also known as tests—of foraminifera, coccolithophores, and pteropods. This is the most common pelagic sediment by area, covering 48% of the world ocean's floor. It accumulates more rapidly than any other pelagic sediment type, with a rate that varies from 0.3–5 cm/1000 yr.

Red clay, also known as either brown clay or pelagic clay, accumulates in the deepest and most remote areas of the ocean. It covers 38% of the ocean floor and accumulates more slowly than any other sediment type, at only 0.1-0.5 cm/1000 yr. Containing less than 30% biogenic material, it consists of sediment that remains after the dissolution of both calcareous and siliceous biogenic particles while they settled through the water column. These sediments consist of eolian quartz, clay minerals, volcanic ash, subordinate residue of siliceous microfossils, and minerals such as zeolites, limonite and manganese oxides. The bulk of red clay consists of eolian dust. Accessory constituents found in red clay include meteorite dust, fish bones and teeth, whale ear bones, and manganese micro-nodules.

Siliceous ooze is ooze that is composed of at least 30% of the siliceous microscopic "shells" of plankton, such as diatoms and radiolarian, a group of round shaped zoo-plankton. Sometimes siliceous oozes also contain silico-flagellates and spicules of sponges. This type of ooze accumulates on the ocean floor at depths below the carbonate compensation depth. Its distribution is also limited to areas with high biological productivity, such as the polar oceans, and upwelling zones near the equator. The least common type of sediment, it covers only 15% of the ocean floor. It accumulates at a slower rate than calcareous ooze: 0.2–1 cm/1000 year.

Hence, statements 1 and 3 are correct. The calcareous ooze is not formed by diatoms as they make siliceous ooze.

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A detailed note on the Law of the Sea and UNCLOS

Law of the Sea is the branch of international law concerned with public order at sea. Much of this law is codified in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), signed on Dec. 10, 1982. The convention, described as a “constitution for the oceans,” represents an attempt to codify international law regarding territorial waters, sea-lanes, and ocean resources. It came into force in 1994 after it had been ratified by the requisite 60 countries; by the early 21st century the convention had been ratified by more than 150 countries.

Internal waters include waters on the landward side of the baseline of a nation's territorial waters, except in archipelagic states. It includes waterways such as rivers and canals and small bays. As per UNCLOS the coastal nation is free to set Laws, regulate any Use, and use any Resource. Foreign vessels have no right of passage within internal waters, and this lack of right to “innocent passage” is the key difference between internal waters and territorial waters.  According to the 1982 convention, each country’s sovereign Territorial Waters extend to a maximum of 12 nautical miles (22 km) beyond its coast, but foreign vessels are granted the right of “innocent passage” through this zone. Passage is innocent as long as a ship refrains from engaging in certain prohibited activities like weapons-testing, spying, smuggling, pollution, fishing, or scientific research. Where territorial waters comprise straits used for international navigation (e.g., the straits of Gibraltar, Mandeb, Hormuz, and Malacca), the navigational rights of foreign shipping are strengthened by the replacement of the regime of “innocent passage” by one of “transit passage,” which places fewer restrictions on foreign ships. A similar regime exists in major sea-lanes through the waters of archipelagos (e.g., Indonesia) called Archipelagic Waters. Archipelagic baseline can be delineated by joining the outermost points of the outermost islands. Outside the Archipelagic/Territorial waters, the surface water is called International Waters, different from High Seas.

Beyond territorial waters, a coastal country may establish Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200 nautical miles (370 km) from shore. Within EEZ the coastal state has the right to: 1. exploit and regulate fisheries. 2. Construct artificial islands and installations. 3. Use the zone for other economic purposes (e.g., energy generation from waves). 4. Regulate scientific research by foreign vessels.  Otherwise, foreign vessels (and aircraft) are entitled to move freely through (and over) the EEZ.

Continental Shelf is defined as the natural prolongation of the land territory to the continental margins’ outer edge, or 200 nautical miles (370 km) from the coastal state's baseline, whichever is greater.). Legally, this area is known as the continental shelf, though it differs considerably from the geological definition of the continental shelf. In other words, UNCLOS states that the shelf extends to the limit of the continental margins’, but atleast 200 nautical miles from baseline. So inhabited volcanic islands like the Canaries, having no actual continental shelf, nonetheless have a legal continental shelf extending to 200 nautical miles out from the baseline, whereas uninhabitable islands have no shelf.

Extended Continental Shelf: With regard to the seabed beyond territorial waters, every coastal country has exclusive rights to oil, gas, and other resources in the seabed of the legal continental shelf, subject to an overall limit of:

o   350 nautical miles (650 km) from the coast OR

o   100 nautical miles (185 km) beyond the 2,500-metre isobath (a line connecting equal point whichever combination of constraint lines the country chooses.

Thus a coastal state's natural continental shelf may exceed 200 nautical miles (370 km) until the prolongation ends. However, it may never exceed 350 nautical miles (650 km) from baseline; or it may never exceed 100 nautical miles (190 km) beyond the 2,500 m isobaths. Coastal states have the right to harvest mineral and non-living material in the subsoil of its continental shelf, to the exclusion of others. Coastal states also have exclusive control over living resources "attached" to the continental shelf, but not to creatures living in water column beyond EEZ.

 [ See the diagram from net]  

High Seas lie beyond the zones described above. The waters and airspace of this area are open to use by all countries, except for those activities prohibited by international law (e.g., the testing of nuclear weapons). The bed of the high seas is known as the International Seabed Area, for which the 1982 convention established a separate legal regime which was unacceptable to developed countries because of the regulation involved, and was subsequently modified by a supplementary treaty (1994). Under the modified regime the minerals on the ocean floor beneath the high seas are deemed “the common heritage of mankind,” and their exploitation is administered by the International Seabed Authority (ISA). Any commercial exploration or mining of the seabed is carried out by private or state concerns regulated and licensed by the ISA, though thus far only exploration has been carried out. If or when commercial mining begins, a global mining enterprise would be established and afforded sites equal in size or value to those mined by private or state companies. Fees and royalties from private and state mining concerns and any profits made by the global enterprise would be distributed to developing countries. Private mining companies are encouraged to sell their technology and technical expertise to the global enterprise and to developing countries.

Where the territorial waters, EEZs, or continental shelves of neighbouring countries overlap, a boundary line must be drawn by agreement to achieve an equitable solution. Many such boundaries have been agreed upon, but in some cases when the countries have been unable to reach agreement the boundary has been determined by the International Court of Justice (ICJ); e.g., the boundary between Bahrain and Qatar) or by an arbitration tribunal (e.g., the boundary between France and the United Kingdom). The most common form of boundary is an equidistance line (sometimes modified to take account of special circumstances) between the coasts concerned.

On many issues the 1982 convention contains precise and detailed regulations (e.g., on innocent passage through territorial waters and the definition of the continental shelf), but on other matters (e.g., safety of shipping, pollution prevention, and fisheries conservation and management) it merely provides a framework, laying down broad principles but leaving the elaboration of rules to other treaties. Regarding the safety of shipping, detailed provisions on the safety and seaworthiness of ships, collision avoidance, and the qualification of crews are contained in several treaties adopted under the auspices of the International Maritime Organization (IMO), a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN). The IMO also has adopted strict antipollution standards for ships. Pollution of the sea from other sources is regulated by several regional treaties, most of which have been adopted under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). The broad standards for fisheries conservation in and management of the EEZ (where most fishing takes place) laid out in the 1982 convention have been supplemented by nonbinding guidelines contained in the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries adopted in 1995 by the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Principles of management for high seas fishers are laid down in the UN fish stocks treaty (1995), which manages straddling and highly migratory fish stocks, and in detailed measures adopted by several regional fisheries commissions.

Countries first attempt to settle any disputes stemming from the 1982 convention and its provisions through negotiations or other agreed-upon means of their choice (e.g., arbitration). If such efforts prove unsuccessful, a country may, subject to some exceptions, refer the dispute for compulsory settlement by the UN International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (located in Hamburg, Germany), by arbitration, or by the ICJ. Resort to these compulsory procedures has been limited.

India’s EEZ

With the adoption of the convention of the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Seas (UNCLOS) by the early eighties, a new International order of economic jurisdiction of 200 nautical miles (375 km) for the coastal states was established. India thus obtained a wide exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of about 2.172-million km² in the sea all along the 7500 km long coastline around her. The living and nonliving resources in this zone, which measures about 66% of the landmass of the country, are exclusive to India, so also the trading and transport facilities navigated through this area. Moreover several million people living along the coastline are directly influenced by oceanography of the EEZ, various environmental hazards and related social issues. 

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