KEY to the CSP-2015 Indian History and
Culture Test 1 Dated 15.10.2014
1.
|
C
|
21.
|
C
|
41.
|
B
|
61.
|
D
|
81
|
B
|
2.
|
B
|
22.
|
D
|
42.
|
A
|
62.
|
A
|
82
|
A
|
3.
|
D
|
23.
|
A
|
43.
|
D
|
63.
|
C
|
83
|
D
|
4.
|
A
|
24.
|
C
|
44.
|
B
|
64.
|
A
|
84
|
D
|
5.
|
C
|
25.
|
D
|
45.
|
D
|
65.
|
B
|
85
|
B
|
6.
|
C
|
26.
|
A
|
46.
|
D
|
66.
|
D
|
86
|
A
|
7.
|
C
|
27.
|
A
|
47.
|
D
|
67.
|
B
|
87
|
C
|
8.
|
A
|
28.
|
C
|
48.
|
D
|
68.
|
D
|
88
|
B
|
9.
|
D
|
29.
|
B
|
49.
|
C
|
69.
|
A
|
89
|
A
|
10.
|
D
|
30.
|
B
|
50.
|
A
|
70.
|
C
|
90
|
A
|
11.
|
B
|
31.
|
A
|
51.
|
D
|
71
|
A
|
91
|
C
|
2.
|
A
|
32.
|
B
|
52.
|
C
|
72
|
A
|
92
|
A
|
13.
|
D
|
33.
|
D
|
53.
|
A
|
73
|
B
|
93
|
B
|
14.
|
C
|
34.
|
A
|
54.
|
C
|
74
|
A
|
94
|
D
|
15.
|
C
|
35.
|
D
|
55.
|
A
|
75
|
A
|
95
|
D
|
16.
|
C
|
36.
|
C
|
56.
|
D
|
76
|
C
|
96
|
C
|
17.
|
B
|
37.
|
A
|
57.
|
D
|
77
|
D
|
97
|
A
|
18.
|
A
|
38.
|
D
|
58.
|
B
|
78
|
D
|
98
|
D
|
19.
|
D
|
39.
|
D
|
59.
|
B
|
79
|
A
|
99
|
A
|
20.
|
C
|
40.
|
D
|
60.
|
A
|
80
|
C
|
100
|
C
|
Explanation:
1. The Indus Valley Civilisation is
one of the oldest ancient civilizations flourished in the world during 2700 to
1700 BC and contemporary to Nile
River and Tigris and Euphrates civilizations. It was the biggest civilization of its time.. It spread across
the North-Western and Northern parts of subcontinent and even parts of
Afghanistan. The map showing the spread of IVC is given as under. The northern
most part of IVC is Manda J and K, Southern most part is Daimabad in
Maharastra, Eastern most part is Alamgiripur in UP and Western most part is
Sutkajendaro in Pakistan. The spread of the IVC is depicted in the following
two maps.
Spread and some
cities of Indus valley Civilization.
2 to 4 & 8. You can read any
reputed source to find out findings in different sites of IVC. Citadel means
fortification around the settlement. All the cities had citadel except
Chanhu-daro. All the cities in IVC were
built on high raised flat forms to avoid inundation of the settlement during
floods and flat surfaces even if flood water enters, it would exit easily. The
western civilizations used to call Indus region as “Meluha”. Dockyard is a
port. Pot burial is burry of dead in a pot. Dog burial is burial of dog along
with its master. Coffin burial is burry of dead in a coffin (Sevapetika in
telugu). Joint burial is burry of both wife and husband in a same grave. You
can also observe, river banks on which different cities of IVC had flourished.
6. The chief crops grown by IVC people
were barley and wheat, but they were not aware of Sugar Cane. Evidences
available to prove that they had cultivated cotton, Rice, Dates and grapes.
7. Presence of three horns is not
unique to IVC. It was observed n other civilizations such as Mesopotamia and
Egypt.
9. Indus Valley people were experts in
different manufacturing activities such as pottery, bead making, seal and
terracotta making, weaving of cotton and cloth, and Jewellery made of gold,
silver and precious stones. These industries flourished in different cities of
IVC.
12. Paleolithic age is one where main
implements used by man were made of stone. [Paleo means old and lithic means
stone]. During Lower Paleolithic age, people used very rough chopping tools
[cutting tools], Hand axes [Chethi goddali in Telugu, where stone is fixed to
wood/stick] and Cleavers [Gokudu raallu in Telugu] made of stone. There no much
technique in making and using these tools. In the next stage in Middle
Paleolithic age, they improved the tools and made on flakes and further
improved during Upper Paleolithic age and used larger flakes and blades. The
next age was Mesolithic where people used polished and small stone tools,
Microliths. The next one is Neolithic
where people started using wheel and made various tools using metals such as
copper, iron etc.
14. Rig Veda is the first among the
Vedas and oldest. It contains hymns (Songs or poems) in praise of Gods. The
maximum hymns were composed in the name of Lord Indra, followed by Agni, Sun
etc. The Trinity of Hinduism, Bramha, Vishnu and Maheswara were not
existing/nor prominent during Vedic period. Lord Vishnu was worshipped as one
of the forms of Sun God. The Yajur Veda, second in series, contains the rituals
and hymns to be followed and sung while doing puja/ yagna etc. The tunes for the hymns of Rig-Veda were found
in Sama Veda. It is the source of all musical notes. [You know that all music
is derived from seven letters, Sa, Ri, ga, ma, pa, da, and ni. They will used
in different permutations and combinations to derive 64 melakartha ragas or
tunes which will be translated into song or poems by using literature]. And the
last among the Vedas was “Atharvana Veda” which consists of Charms and spells
popularly called as “black magic”.
17 and 19. During Vedic times, cows
were the source of income and that was the main symbol of wealth. Hence, the
person having more cows, called as Gomath [name indicates the same meaning] was
considered as wealthy and role of the King was also to protect the main wealth
of the people, i.e, Cows. The valuable things only stolen or robbed, now may be
gold/cash, but, during the Vedic times, cows. [We had seen in villages till 10 to 15 years
before the major stealing would be cows and sheep and in some villages even
now]. The concept of Standing Army had developed during the later part of the
Indian History. Bimbisara, the Haryanka dynasty king who was ruling Magadha
appears to be first king in India to maintain Standing Army to defend huge
territories and to due to invention and exploitation of iron ore in Magadha
region, warfare had become more structured with different weapons. Till Bimbisara’s
time, army was pooled up at the time of war and there was no concept separate
army for defending the territory and winning the battles. The concept of giving
land grants was not there during Vedic times.
The people used to pay voluntary tax
to the King in return for the protection extended to tribe and cows, called
“Bali” and compulsory tax levied, “Bhaga”. King was not powerful during Vedic
times as the major decisions were taken by “Sabha” and “Samithi”.
20 and 21. The Kingship developed
hereditary and kings became powerful. All the positive aspects related to
women, their right to participate in Sabha and Samithi procedures; widow
remarriages were stopped and further, child marriages were started afresh.
Further in the society the Varnashrama dharma has transformed into rigid caste
system with an outcaste, untouchables or chandals outside the Hindu caste
system. Sacrifices became far more
important and elaborate. The Gods of early Vedic period lost importance and
replaced by Trinity of Hinduism –Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. The Upanishads
which were compelled during this period had criticized the rituals and sacrifices
and put emphasis on Karma Dharma & Moksha. The corruption and evil
practices those crept into religious practices and adoption of Sanskrit as a
language has took the religious sacrifices and other avenues beyond the common
people.
Hence all the points given in both the questions
are correct.
22. Use of iron plough has
revolutionized agricultural production but not copper made one.
26. Know the content of these works
and also their other works/contributions
27. Read
a note on Neolithic culture
28. The rise of Jainism and Buddhism
was against the evil and usurious religious practices with associated
disabilities inflicted on the cattle and common people and against the
bramhanical domination. The first thing they did was adopting the language
which common people could understand. Jainism adopted Prakrith [Arthamagathi] and
Buddhism adopted Pali [Magathi] as their languages. [Magadhi is a language
derived name from Magadha Empire. This language was spoken in central and east
India during those times. Arthamagadhi is half-magadhi and derived from same
source that of magadhi. Their official names are Prakrith and Pali] Most of the
Jain texts are written in Prakrith and Kannada and promoted several local
languages including “Souraseni”, from which present day Marathi originated. Theraveda
and Hinayana Buddhism continued to use Pali where as Mahayana Buddhism adopted
Sanskrit.
29. Buddhist councils, Presidents,
Patrons, places and happenings:
Buddhist
council
|
President
|
Patron,
Place and year
|
Result
|
1st
|
Mahakasyapa
|
Ajathasathru, Rajagriha in 483 BC
|
Ananda composed “Suttapitaka” containing
Buddha’s sayings and Upali composed “Vinayapitaka” containing monastic codes
of Buddhism
|
2nd
|
Sabhakami
|
Kalasoka, Vaisali, 383 BC
|
There was a division of Buddhist Sangha into
orthodox Theravadins or Sthavarivadins and Mahasanghikas
|
3rd
|
Mogaliputta Tissa
[Upagupta]
|
Ashoka the Great,
Pataliputra/Patna in 250 BC
|
It established Theravadins as the true
followers. The third and last of the “Tripitakas”, “Abhidhamma Pitaka” was
composed at this council.
|
4th
|
Vasumithra
|
Kaniska at Kashmir in 1st
Century AD
|
Buddhists divided into two major sects-
Mahayana and Hinayana. The latter include different smaller ones including
Theravada Buddhism. Unlike first three councils, the deliberations were done
in Sankrit [as against Pali].
|
32. Buddhism and Jainism:
Similarities between Jainism and Buddhism
|
Differences between Jainim and Buddhism
|
(1) The source of both the religion is vedic
religion and both and indebted to Upanishads
(2) Both Gautam Buddha and Mahavir
belonged to princely families and not to priestly families.
(3) Both deny the existence of God.
(4) Both denied the authority of the
Vedas and the necessity of performing sacrifices and rituals.
(5) Both have accepted the theories of
Karma rebirth and Moksha.
(6) Both taught in the language of the
common people i.e. Prakrit and not in Sanskrit which was the language of the
priests.
(7) Both of them were opposed to animal
sacrifices.
(8) Both of them admitted disciples from
all the castes and from both sexes.
(9) Ahimsa is the prominent principle of
both the religions.
(10) Both Buddhism and Jainism put stress
on right conduct and right knowledge and not on religious ceremonial and
ritual as the way to obtain salvation.
(11) Both, the religions came as a sort
of reform of Hindu religion.
(12) Both the Religions were later on
divided into two sects. Buddhism was divided into Mahayana and Hinayana.
Jainism was divided into Svetambara and Digambara.
(13) Both had their own three gems or
'Tri Ratna'. Tri Ratna of Jainism were right philosophy right knowledge and
right character. The Tri-Ratna of Buddhism were Budhha, Dhamma and Sangha.
(14) Both had three main religious texts.
Tripitaka, i.e. Vinaypitak, Suttapitaka and Abidhamma pitak were the three
religious texts of Buddhism, where as Anga i.e, Anga, Upanga and Mulgrajitha
were those of the Jainism.
|
(1) Difference regarding
conception Moksha :
According to Buddhism, a man attains
Moksha when he ends all the desires and can attain it while living in the
world. But according, to Jainism Moksha is freedom from miseries and can be
attained only after death.
(2) Means of attainment of
Moksha:
According to Buddhist Sangha is proper
for attainment of Moksha and they hate self-mortifications and severe
penances. Jainism believes in fasts and severest penances.
(3) Ahimsa :
Though both emphasise the principle of
Ahimsa, yet Jainism is stricter in this connection.
(4) Soul:
Buddhists do not believe in the existence
of soul whereas Jainism believes the existence of soul in every living being.
(5) Regarding Conduct:
Buddhism emphasises the eight noble piths
whereas Jainism emphasizes Tri-Ratna.
(6) Language of Religious texts :
Most of the Jain texts are in Sanskrit
and Prakrit whereas Buddhist texts are in Pali.
(7)Their
connection with Hinduism: Jain religion is nearer to Hinduism whereas
Buddhism followed the policy of keeping away from Hinduism.
(8) Caste system :
Jains opposed it but Buddhism opposed and
attacked vehemently.
(9) Royal support and patronage :
Buddhism received the royal support and
patronage of kings like Ashoka and Kanishka. But Royal patronage was not
stronger for Jainism, though individual kings such as Chandragupta Maurya and
Kharavela followed and patronized. But, they did not try much for its spread
within and outside India.
(10) Propagation :
Buddhism spread to foreign countries
whereas Jainism did not travel outside the boundaries of India
|
33. Megastanese was the ambassador of
Greek King, Seleucus-I to the court of Chandragupta
Maurya. He is considered to be first
foreign ambassador to India. In his book, “Indica” he gave detail account of
political, social, economic & religious life of India. He has divided India
society into 7 castes. They were philosophers,
agriculturists, soldiers, artisans, shepherds and hunters, officials in the government and spies. This division of society was according to the
occupation pursued by the people. Megasthenes refers to the general
honesty of the people and says that theft or crimes were of a rare occurrence. The code of punishment was severe,
mutilation for giving false evidence and death for injuring the
royal artisan.
He states
that money lending or usury, famines and Slavery were non-existing in India,
though facts appear to be different on these three issues. Megasthenes says
that scarcity and famine were unknown to India, but Kautilya talks
about various famine relief measures to be taken by the State. The Jain text,
“Parishista Parvan” describes there was a famine during Chandragupta Mauryas
tenure. It appears that famine might not have happened during his stay in
Maghada kingdome. Megasthenes says that slavery was
absent in India. But slavery die exist in India but its form was its form
was different from Europe. Kautilya mentions about nine categories of slaves
and their rights. People used to inherit slaves as assets. If a lady slave
begets a child with her master, the woman and her children would become
free. Money lending did exist in India
at that point of time. In view of these, all the statements are correct and the
right answer is D.
34. All the points from 1 to 4 are
correct except 5. Ashoka the Great was very cruel in early life and hence the
answer is A.
35 and 36. The Ashokan edicts appear
to be the earliest specimens of Prakrit language in India and they were
engraved on rocks, on polished stones, etc. in four scripts in different parts
of the Kingdom. It was Bramhi in India, Kharosti in North Western India and
Greek and Aramaic in further west such as Iran etc. Hence, the statement that
his edicts are only limited India is incorrect one.
The Edicts of Ashoka are
a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka as
well as boulders and cave walls made by the Emperor Ashoka of
the Mauryan Empire during
his reign from 269 BCE to 232 BCE. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout
the areas of modern-day Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan and
represent the first tangible evidence ofBuddhism.
The edicts describe in detail the Ashoka's view about dhamma, an earnest attempt to solve some
of problems that a complex society faced. According to the edicts, the extent of
Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as the Mediterranean,
and many Buddhist monuments were created.
The
Edicts are divided into:
·
Major Rock Edicts: 14 Edicts (termed
1st to 14th) and 2 separate ones found in Odisha
·
Minor Rock Inscriptions: Minor Rock
Edicts, the Queen's Edict, Barabar Caves inscriptions
and the Kandahar bilingual inscription.
·
Pillar Edicts: Seven Edicts.
These inscriptions
proclaim Ashoka's adherence to the Buddhist philosophy which, as in Hinduism is
called dharma, "Law". The inscriptions show his efforts to develop
the Buddhist dharma throughout his kingdom. Although Buddhism and theGautama Buddha are mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral
precepts rather than specific religious practices or the philosophical
dimension of Buddhism.
In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers
to himself as "Beloved of the Gods" (Devanampiyadasi) The
identification of Devanampiyadasi with Ashoka was confirmed by an inscription
discovered in 1915 by C. Beadon, a British gold-mining engineer, at Maski,
a village in Raichur district of Karnataka.
Another minor rock edict is found at the village Gujarra in Datia district of Madhya Pradesh.
This also shows the name "Ashoka" in addition to usual
"Devanampiyadasi". The inscriptions found in the eastern part of
India were written in Magadhi Prakrit using
the Brahmi
script. These edicts were deciphered by British archaeologist and
historian James
Prinsep.
The inscriptions revolve around a
few recurring themes: Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism, the description of his
efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social
and animal welfare program.
40. Espionage or spying is at its peak
during Mauryan time and separate Department was meant for it. It consisted of
“gudapurushas” [Secret Agents] under the control of “Mahamatyapasarpa”. They
correspond to “Pativedakas” and “Pulisanis” of Ashokan edicts. According to
Arthasastra of Kautilya, all kinds of people in the country, including
students, beggars with sharp mind were utilized as spies. Idle business
persons, woman, mendicants etc were utilized as spies to know the real
happenings in different parts of the country and take corrective measures
wherever required. Even spies on spies were also employed to cross check the
facts. The king used to change several beds during night time to escape from
probable attacks or treachery.
50 and 57: Fahien was the first
Chinese pilgrim to visit India and stayed 10 yrs. in India. He came to India by
land route through Gobi Desert, the pamir plateau, Swath and Gandhara and
returned to China by Sea route. He had translated some of the Buddhist texts to
Chinese from Sanskrit, one of the most important among them was “Maha
Parinirvana Sutra”. He was the author of famous book, “Record of Buddhist Kingdoms”. Fa-hein had travelled extensively in
India and therefore right option is A for question 50.
51. Allahabad Prashasthi was composed
by Harisena, Chief Commander of Samudra Gupta portraying him as Great Administrator
and conqueror who won hundred battles, Mehroli iron pillar inscription talks
about greatness of Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya II and his victory against
sakas. Similarly, Eran copper plate
inscription found in Allahabad issued by Bhanu Gupta. It is the first written recorded evidence on
the custom of Sati. All these three are
sources of Gupta Kings and their achievements.
However, the Aihole inscription found at the
Megoti temple in Karnataka has a great significance history of India and
describing the achievements of Pulakesi II, a western Chalukyan King. It describes that victory of Pulakesi II over
Harshavardhana of Pushabuti Dynasty, victory of Chalukyas on Pallavas and
shifting of capital from Aihole to Badami by Pulakesi II. This inscription
mentions about poet Kalidas. It is
written in Sanskrit and it is in Kannada script. Hence, the answer is D.
56. The Gupta Kingdom was started by
Sri Gupta. The kings who followed him were Gatotkacha Gupta, Chandragupta-I
[319-334AD], Samudra Gupta [335-380 AD], Chandragupta-II [380- 414 AD], Kumara
Gupta-I [414-467 AD], and Skanda Gupta [455-467 AD]
65.
During the Gupta period, trade with Romans reached peak and also declined
during the
same
period due to the attacks of Huns. The
important ports were Babaricum in Sindh in West
and
Thamralipthi on the East Coast. Madhura
was the most important centre known for best
quality
cloth called Sataka and Gangadhara for
woolen textiles. The book “Periplus of the
Erithrean Sea” [literary meaning, daily activity
in the Red Sea] was a illustrious account on the
trade
between India and Rome and author of the same is not known.
66.
Mouryas were the first kings to start issue of land grants and this was first
time started in
South
India by the Satavahanas. However, land
grants to civil servants first time started by
Guptas
and they used to discharge civil, military and judicial functions on the behalf
of the King.
The
land grants made by the Gupta Kings to
the temples were called Brahmadayas /
Devadayas;
land grants to Brahmins were called Agraharas, the grantiees are called Bhoktas
and
Bhugatas. According to many theories the Gupta land grant system was
responsible for the
beginning
of Feudalism in India.
67.
Deva Matrukas were the most fertile tracts of the empire and always under
cultivation.
Krushinala means tillers of the soil and
Anirvasitha meant Independent Sudra cultivators. The
revenue
assessment methods were Kulyavapa (conventional crop sharing). Dronavapa (crop
estimation)
and Nirvatana (revenue of plough).
73. Guptas were followers of Hinduism,
but had tolerance for the other religions such as Buddhism.
75. The court of Chandra Gupta
Vikramadithya II was adorned by Nine Exponents,
famously called Nava Ratnas and the court
of Krishnadevaraya was adorned by 8 poets
called“Astadiggajas”. But all the Navaratnas
were not poets and they were experts in different
fields. Some of them such as Kalidas were
poets. You may know about all of them and their
field of expertise.
77. The ultimate of aim of Jains is to
attain “Moksha” or “Kaivalyam” or salvation from the human life. They do extreme fasting and kills themselves
at the end of it. This is called “Sallekhana Vrata”. According to Jainism,
Parshavanatha, 23rd Thirthankar has proposed four principles, 1.
Non-violence [Ahimha], 2. No lies/Truthfullness [Satya], 3.Non-stealing
[Asteya] and 4. Non- possession of property/wealth [Aparigraha]. Mahavira, the
24th and most famous thirthankara, added fifth principle, 5.
Celibacy [Bramhacharya]. The Jain monks follow these five principles in true
and spirit in a severe way, then they are called “Maha vratas” and these
principles would be called “Anu-vratas” if they are observed by common people
to the extent they can follow, i.e., in a lighter way. The observation of fast by the Jains on the
day of full moon is called “POSADHA”.
79. Gather the complete details of various
stupas, chaithays and viharas of Buddhism in India and their specialties. This
is a potential area for future questions.
81. Acharya Nagarjuna (c. 150 – c. 250 CE) was believed to have born in
Brahmin family from South, especially from Andhra around present day, Guntur
district. He taught and served as head of Nalanda University, hence the title
acharya. His original name appears to be Srimantha. He is widely considered one
of the most important Buddhist philosophers after Gautama Buddha or second Buddha. Along
with his disciple Āryadeva, he is considered to
be the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It describes the
“Sunya Siddhantha” or “theory of emptiness” in human life and suggested middle
path in life. He is believed to have recovered teachings of Gauthama Buddha,
from Nagas who were given custody of Buddha’s teachings by Buddha himself for
safe custody till second Buddha comes to explain and propagate the same to the
public and therefore the title, Nāgārjuna. He is also credited with developing
the philosophy of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras and, in some sources, with having revealed these
scriptures in the world, having recovered them from the nāgas (snake-people). Furthermore, he is traditionally supposed to
have written several treatises on “Rasayana Alchemy” [technique
to convert any metal into gold and invention of elixir of life]. He is credited
to have been proposed the theory of relativism. It is believed that Nagarjuna
was advisor to a Satavahana King, Yagnisri Satakarni who ruled Satavahana Empire
during 167 to 196 CE and on the basis Nagarjuna would have lived during 150 to
250 CE.
83. The Mehrauli
iron pillar belongs to the Chandragupta vikramaditya II and not Samudra Gupta.
The Mahrauli Iron Pillar was originally placed on a hill near the Beas and was
brought to Delhi by a King of Delhi the Gupta Empire by Radhakumud Mookerji.
This pillar credits Chandragupta with the following:
Ø
Conquest of the Vanga Countries by his battling alone against
the confederacy of the enemies united against him.
Ø
Conquest of Vahlakas in a fight that ran across seven mouths
of Sindhu.
Ø
Spread his fame to southern seas.
Ø
Attained Ekadhirajjyam (United Kingdom) by prowess of his
arms.
Ø
This pillar was established by Chandragupta as Vishnupada in
the honor of Lord Vishnu.
The
Mehrauli iron pillar located near Kutubminar and the inscription issued by
Chandragupta vikaramaditya II on it in Sanskrit and bramhi Script. Several
other inscriptions are engraved on it, but the oldest is Chandragupta’s II.
The Sultanganj Buddha is a Gupta-Pala transitional period sculpture, the largest
substantially complete copper Buddha figure known from this time. The statue
is dated by archaeologists to between 500 to 700 AD. It is 2.3m high and 1m
wide, weighs over 500 kg. It was found in the North Indian town of Sultanganj, Bhagalpur district, Bihar in 1861
during the construction of the East Indian Railway.
It is presently located in Birmingham Museum
& art gallery, Birmingham, UK.
|
86. Ajanta and Ellora Caves
The
first Buddhist cave monuments at Ajanta date from the 2nd and 1st centuries
B.C. During the Gupta period (5th and 6th centuries A.D.), many more richly decorated
caves were added to the original group. The paintings and sculptures of Ajanta,
considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, have had a considerable
artistic influence.
Ajantha
caves near Aurangabad of Maharastra.
The
style of Ajanta has exerted a considerable influence in India and elsewhere,
extending, in particular, to Java. With its two groups of monuments
corresponding to two important moments in Indian history, the Ajanta cave
ensemble bears exceptional testimony to the evolution of Indian art, as well as
to the determining role of the Buddhist community, intellectual and religious
foyers, schools and reception centres in the India of the Gupta and their
immediate successors.
The
caves are situated 100 km north-east of Ellora, 104 km from
Aurangabad and 52 km from Jalgaon Railway Station. They are cut into the
volcanic lava of the Deccan in the forest ravines of the Sahyadri Hills and are
set in beautiful sylvan surroundings. These magnificent caves containing carvings
that depict the life of Buddha, and their carvings and sculptures are
considered to be the beginning of classical Indian art.
The
29 caves were excavated beginning around 200 BC, but they were abandoned in AD
650 in favour of Ellora. Five of the caves were temples and 24 were
monasteries, thought to have been occupied by some 200 monks and artisans. The
Ajanta Caves were gradually forgotten until their 'rediscovery' by a British
tiger-hunting party in 1819.
The
Ajanta site comprises thirty caves cut into the side of a cliff which rises
above a meander in the Waghora River. Today the caves are reached by a road
which runs along a terrace mid-way up the cliff, but each cave was once linked
by a stairway to the edge of the water. This is a Buddhist community, comprising
five sanctuaries or Chaitya-grihas (caves 9, 10, 19, 26 and
29) and monastic complex sangharamas or viharas. A
first group of caves was created in the 2nd century BC: the chaitya-grihas open
into the rock wall by doorways surmounted by a horse-shoe shaped bay. The
ground plan is a basilical one: piers separate the principal nave from the side
aisles which join in the apsis to permit the ritual circumambulation behind the
(commemorative monument). This rupestral architecture scrupulously reproduces
the forms and elements visible in wooden constructions.
A
second group of caves was created at a later date, the 5th and 6th centuries
AD, during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. These caves were excavated during
the supremacy of the Vakatakas and Guptas. According to inscriptions,
Varahadeva, the minister of the Vakataka king, Harishena (c. AD
475-500), dedicated Cave 16 to the Buddhist sangha while Cave 17 was the gift
of the prince, a feudatory. An inscription records that the Buddha image in
Cave 4 was the gift of some Abhayanandi who hailed from Mathura.
The
earlier architectural formulas were re-employed but treated in an infinitely
richer and more ample manner. The decoration attained, at this time, an
unequalled splendour: the statuary is numerous (it was already permissible to
represent Buddha as a human; these representations are found both on the
facades and in the interior). Finally, the wall painting, profuse and
sensitive, constitutes, no doubt, the most striking artistic achievement of
Ajanta.
Under
the impulse of the Gupta dynasty, Indian art in effect reached its apogee. The
Ajanta Caves are generally decorated with painted or sculpted figures of supple
form and classic balance with which the name of the dynasty has remained
synonymous. The refined lightness of the decoration, the balance of the
compositions, the marvellous beauty of the feminine figures place the paintings
of Ajanta among the major achievements of the Gupta and post-Gupta style and
confer on them the ranking of a masterpiece of universal pictorial art.
The cave temples and monasteries at
Ellora, excavated out of the vertical face of an escarpment, are 26
km north of Aurangabad. Extending in a linear arrangement, the 34 caves contain
Buddhist Chaityas or halls of worship, and Viharas, or monasteries, Hindu and
Jai temples.
Spanning
a period of about 600 years between the 5 th and 11 th century AD, the earliest
excavation here is of the Dhumar Lena (Cave 29).The most imposing
excavation is, without doubt, that of the magnificent Kailasa
Temple (Cave 16) which is the largest monolithic structure in the world.
Interestingly, Ellora, unlike the site of Ajanta, was never 'rediscovered'.
Known as Verul in ancient times, it has continuously attracted pilgrims through
the centuries to the present day.
Ellora
has been designed as a World Heritage Site, to be preserved as an artistic
legacy that will continue to inspire and enrich the lives of generations to
come.
List
of caves and religion they belong to:
Buddhist
Caves: built during 5th Century to 7th century AD Caves 1
to 12 at the Southern end.
Hindu
Caves : built during 8th
Century to 10th century AD Caves13 to 29 in the middle
Jain
Caves : built during 9th
Century to 11th century AD Caves 30 to 34 at the Northern end
87.
India's Hindu temple
architecture is developed
from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to the
larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste). A small Hindu temple consists of an inner
sanctum, the garbha graha or womb-chamber, in
which the idol or deity is housed, often called circumambulation, a congregation
hall, and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garbhagriha or sanctum
sanctorum is crowned by a tower-like shikara.
All
the Hindu temples in India follow the architecture defined in Shilpa Shastras. However, there are
artistic variations in terms of construction of shikara depending on regional
culture.
Kandariya Mahadeva temple of Chandela
dynasty: Terms in Temple architecture
In design/plan of a temple, several parts of Temple
architecture are considered, most common amongst these are:
1. Adhisthana: A base
platform on which further platform is raised. It is present in all temples
2. Jagati: It is a raised surface, platform or terrace upon which
the temple is placed.
3. Antarala: Antarala is a small anti-chamber or foyer between the garbhagriha (shrine) and
the mandapa. It is common feature of north Indian temples.
4. Mandapa
/ Mandapam: It refers to pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals.
Based on the location and purpose, they are called with different names as
under
Ø Ardha Mandapam —
intermediary space between the temple exterior and the garba griha (sanctum sanctorum)
or the other mandapas of the temple
Ø Maha Mandapam —
(Maha=big) When there are several mandapas in the temple, it is the biggest and
the tallest and generally adjoining the sanctum sanctorum. It is used for
conducting religious discourses.
Ø Asthana Mandapam —
assembly hall
Ø Kalyana Mandapam —
dedicated to ritual marriage celebration of the Lord with Goddess
Ø Nandi Mandapam (or
Nandi mandir) - In the Shiva temples, pavilion with a statue of the sacred bull Nandi, looking at the
statue or the lingam of Shiva. [In some south Indian Temples, for eg. Srirangam
Ranganatha swamy Temple, Garuda or the vehicle of Vishnu has similar mandapa]
5. Garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum or Sreekovil:
Sreekovil or Garbhagriha the part in which the idol of the deity in a Hindu temple is installed. The
area around is referred as to the Chuttapalam,
which generally includes other deities and the main boundary wall of the
temple. Typically there is also a Pradikshna area in the
Garbagriha and one outside the
garbagriha, where devotees can take Pradakshinas or around Deity or around
Garbagriha.
6.
Śikhara or Vimanam: It literally
means "mountain peak", refer to the rising tower over the sanctum sanctorum where the presiding deity is enshrined
is the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temples. It is very tall in
South Indian temples and smaller in North Indian temples. Around this tower,
different depictions of the various statues and figurines and sometimes
different Gods or erotic figures depicting several themes as in Khajarao
temples etc.
7.
Amalaka: It is a stone or metal disk, often with
ridges, that sits on a temple's main tower (Sikhara). The amalaka of Brihadiswara or
Rajarajeswara Temple of Tanjore built by chola Emperor, Raja Raja the Great,
in1010 AD, is made of single stone and
weighs about 80 Metric tons.
8. Gopuras
/ Gopurams: They are the elaborate gateway-towers
of south Indian temples, not to be confused with Shikharas.
9. Urushringa: It is a subsidiary Sikhara, lower and
narrower, tied against the main sikhara
10. Kalasa or
Kalasam: Hindu temples typically have Kalasam at the
top of temple towers, made up of metal or stone. These Kalasam in form of
inverted pot is one of the prominent symbols of temples. Periodic renewal of
temple is called kumbabishekam centers around Kalasams, when elaborate rituals
are performed along with renewing the temple's physical structures. The
kalasams are generally made of an alloy of 5 metals including gold, silver,
copper and tin and these metals give these kalasams a electro-magnetic
reception. Grains like rice, salt, ragi, millet, corn, maize and sesame were
poured in. And millet, especially, was used in huge quantities as the
scientific knowledge then, claimed millet could conduct electro-magnetic waves.
These objects act as lightning conductors and are considered to be ‘earthing’.
Moreover, how many lives could be saved by these lightening conductors depends
on the height of these towers. For example, if a tower is about 50 meters tall,
then it would protect an area that falls in a 100 meter radius.
Once
in 12 years, the grains in the temple kalasams are refilled and changed during
a festival called “Kudamuzhugu Vilzha”. This is because the grains have a
period of 12 years to absorb the electro-magnetic waves, after which they lose
their conduciveness. Moreover, unlike these days where it rains just 3 days, it
used to rain for 3 continuous months. So when all grains get wasted in the
rains, the grains on top of these towers will be protected and dry and they
could be used for sowing. These are the secrets of the ancient temple gopurams and
our ancient scientific knowledge.
Different models and numbers of
Kalasams at different temples
The term alwars literally “those immersed in god” and were Tamil poet-saints of south
India who espoused ‘emotional devotion’ or bhakti to Visnu-Krishna in
their songs of longing, ecstasy and service. They are considered to have lived
between 4200 BCE - 2700 BCE. The Vaishnava orthodoxy claim there
were only 10 alwars, but other references that include Andal and Madhurakavi,
making the number twelve. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman
poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of
such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling
and felicity of expressions. The collection of their hymns is known as Divya Prabandha.
The
Bhakti literature that sprang from Alvars has contributed to the establishment
and sustenance of a culture that broke away from the ritual-oriented Vedic
religion and rooted itself in devotion as the only path for salvation. In
addition they helped to make the Tamil religious life independent of knowledge
of Sanskrit. As part of the legacy of the
Alvars, five Vaishnava philosophical
traditions (sampradayas) have developed at the later stages. Together with the
contemporary sixty three Saiva Nayanars, they are accounted
as South India's 75 Apostles of Bhakti because of their
importance in the rise of the Hindu Bhakti movement.
Pāṇini
is known for his Sanskrit grammar, particularly for
his formulation of the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology, syntax and semantics in the grammar known
as Ashtadhyayi (Aṣṭādhyāyī,
meaning "eight chapters"), the foundational text of the grammatical
branch of the Vedanga, the auxiliary
scholarly disciplines of Vedic religion [Hinduism] .
The
Ashtadhyayi is one of the earliest known grammars of Sanskrit, although Pāṇini
refers to previous texts like the Unadisutra,Dhatupatha,
and Ganapatha. It is the earliest
known work on descriptive
linguistics,
and together with the work of his immediate predecessors (Nirukta, Nighantu, Pratishakyas) stands at the
beginning of the history
of linguistics itself. His theory of
morphological analysis was more advanced than any equivalent Western theory
before the mid 20th century, and
his analysis of noun compounds still forms the basis of modern linguistic
theories of compounding, which have borrowed Sanskrit terms such as bahuvrihi and dvandva.
Pāṇini's
comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark
the end of the period of Vedic Sanskrit, introducing the
period of Classical Sanskrit.
Patañjali is a Sanskrit proper
name. Several important Sanskrit works are ascribed to one or more authors of
this name, and a great deal of scholarship has been devoted over the last
century or so to the issue of disambiguation. Amongst the more important
authors called Patañjali are:
The author of the Mahābhāṣya, an advanced treatise on Sanskrit
grammar and linguistics framed as a commentary on Kātyāyana'svārttikas (short comments) on Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī. This Patañjali's life is the only
one which can be securely dated (as one of the grammatical examples he uses
makes reference to the siege of the town of Sāketā by the Greeks, an event
known from other sources to have taken place around 120 BCE).
·
The
compiler of the Yoga
Sūtras, an important
collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice. Patanjali) is one of the 18
siddhars in the Tamil siddha (Shaiva)
tradition.
·
The
author of an unspecified work of medicine (āyurveda).
Amara
seems to have been a Buddhist, and most of his
work was destroyed, with the exception of what is the celebrated Amara-Kosha (Treasury of Amara),
a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called Trikanda or the "Tripartite". It is
also known as "Namalinganushasana".
It
contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, like other works of its class, in
metre, to aid the memory. The first chapter of the Kosha was printed at Rome in Tamil character in
1798. An edition of the entire work, with English notes and an index by HT
Colebrooke,
appeared at Serampore in 1808. The Sanskrit
text was printed at Calcutta in 1831. A French
translation by ALA Loiseleur-Deslongchamps as published at Paris in 1839. Louie Rice compiled the Kannada version of it and its
available 4th edition was printed in 1927 which contains three khandas and 25
sargas
91. During the Sangam age [2nd century BC to 3rd century AD],
there were three important kingdoms ruling South India. They were Cheras of Malabar
coast/Kerala, Cholas of South East coast with capitals at Uraiyur and
Kaveripatnam and Pandyas of Central
Tamil Nadu with Madurai and Kamatapura as capitals. Senguttavan or Red chera is
most popular king among Cheras and he was first to construct temple for Kannagi
and first to introduce “Pattini cult”. Among the cholas, Karaikala Chola was
the greatest and he had constructed dam across river Cauvery and fort city,
Kaveripatnam. Among the Pandyas, Nedujelian was the greatest who had performed
Aswamedhayaga. These three dynasties participated in the Sangam meetings, a
confluence of Scholars/poets. It is legend that first Sangam meeting was
convened by Sage Agastya [considered to be first Aryan who had crossed
vindyas], but however all the known Sangam Literature belong to 2nd
and 3rd Sangams.
You must know the important works
and themes/content of the important Sangam Literature such as 1. Early works,
2. Eight Anthologies, called “Ettutogai” [ettu means 8 in Tamil], 3. Ten short
poems, called Pattu Pathu [Pattu means 10 in Tamil], 4. 18 minor works,
Paddunekki Kanakkalu and 5. Three Epics.
The 3 Epics of Sangam literature are Silappadikaram or The Jewelled
Anklet, Manimeghalai and Saivaga
Chintamani.
100.
Different kinds of Buddhism and their presence in the contemporary world:
Theravada
one of the non-Mahayana sects of Buddhism which was spread from India to its
southern nieghbours, Sri Lanka and extended neighbours such as South East Asia,
Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Korea etc. Mahayana Buddhism spread to north
of India to China, Japan, Mangolia, Russia etc. The Vajrayana Buddhism is one
of the forms of Mahayan Buddhism prevalent in Tibet, Bhutan and Mangolia. Neobuddhism
is a concept that emerged in India with historical adoption of Buddhism by Dr.
Ambedkar and several dalits along with him.
Additional Information:
Theravada and Hinayana:
Theravada
tradition is based on the set of teachings decided by the Third Council to
contain the teachings of the Buddha.
Shri
Lanka has played a central role in preserving the Theravada scriptures and
practices. After the Third Council, the Tripitaka collections of sutras were
taken to Shri Lanka. Most of these were originally in the Pali language, but
some were compiled in other languages. Through the centuries however, all
teachings were translated into Pali (around 35 BCE). Initially, most ordained
Sangha were known as parivrajahas (wanderers). They would assemble during the
rainy season when travelling became problematic. Gradually, buildings were
donated and the Sangha became more static. Just a century after the Buddha
passed away, monasteries became the main mechanism for preservation of the
teachings. Also extra monastic rules were introduced. Only during one short
period in history Buddhism was banned in Shri Lanka, but it was later restored
with teachings from Thailand which in turn had originated in Shri Lanka. The
main countries where the Theravada tradition is currently alive and well in Shri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and
Laos.
The
teachings on the Four Noble Truths and meditation form the basis of Theravada
practice.
The
term Hinayana (smaller Vehicle) appeared only much later, around the first
century CE, when teachings of a different nature appeared which were called
Mahayana (greater Vehicle).
In India, non-Mahayana or Hinayana sects developed independent from the form of
Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today, there is no Hinayana tradition in
existence anywhere, although Theravada could be called the tradition most like
Hinayana. The ultimate goal of the Theravadin and other non-Mahayana practice
is to attain the state of an Arhat, as Buddhahood is considered
practically unachievable for nearly everyone within this aeon.
Although helping other sentient beings is accepted as an important Buddhist
practice, the main motivation for following the spiritual path is to achieve
liberation for oneself - Nirvana.
Due to the negative connotation of the term Hinayana, the World Fellowship of
Buddhists decided that the term Hinayana should be dropped to refer to Buddhism
existing today, and the term Theravada should be applied, also because the term
Hinayana has a negative connotation.
The
Mahayana appears to have developed between the 1st Century BC to the 1st
Century CE. About the 2nd Century CE Mahayana became clearly defined. Master
Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata (emptiness) and proved
that everything is 'Void' (not only the self) in a small text called Madhyamika-karika.
After the 1st Century CE., the Mahayanists took a definite stand and only then
the terms of Mahayana and Hinayana were introduced.
Around
the first century CE, teachings of a different style appeared. The terms
Mahayana and Hinayana appeared in the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra or the Sutra of
the Lotus of the Good Law. Of great influence to the development of the
Mahayana was Master Nagarjuna (2nd Century CE) who is known for his profound
teachings on the philosophy of emptiness. About the 4th Century CE, the Masters
Asanga and Vasubandhu wrote enormous amount of works on Mahayana. The Mahayana
teachings were mainly written down in Sanskrit, and are now called the Mahayana
Sutras.
A clear division arose between the schools following the traditional teachings
and Mahayana. Although the main philosophical differences may be small, they
have profound consequences for the practices involved.
The
Mahayana philosophy is based on the older tradition and fully accepts these
teachings, but not all traditional interpretations. One of the most important
aspects is for example the traditional interpretation that Buddhahood can be
achieved only by very few people. The Mahayana teaches instead that every
sentient being (being with a mind) can become a Buddha, the only thing
preventing our full enlightenment is the failure to improve one's own actions
and state of mind. The Mahayana tradition claims that all their sutras have
been taught directly by Shakyamuni Buddha or have at least been inspired by the
Buddha.
The main Mahayana motivation is to lead all sentient beings to enlightenment. Liberation from cyclic
existence (Nirvana) and Buddhahood for oneself are regarded simply as fortunate
by-products of one's efforts to help all beings. In fact, the only possible motivation
with which one can become a Buddha is the altruistic wish to lead all sentient
beings away from suffering.
This motivation is reflected in taking an additional set of vows, known
as Bodhisattva vows on top of taking Refuge. The main vow is
to free all sentient beings from suffering. These vows are not taken for this
life only, but for all future lives as well, until this goal is achieved. The
main practices of a Mahayanist are summarised in the 6 perfections:
the perfection of giving, ethics, patience, joyous effort, concentration and
wisdom.
The
Mahayana tradition mainly developed in North India, and spread further North
into China and Tibet. In China,
Buddhist philosophy and practice was often mixed with Taoist and Confucian
aspects. Via China, Mahayana Buddhism also spread to other countries like
Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Japan. Also, in China the Ch'an tradition
evolved, which was introduced into Japan, and there developed into Zen. Also,
the very popular Pure Land Buddhism developed, which focuses on being reborn in
the Pure Land of Amitabha, mainly through recitation of Amitabha Buddha's name.
Pure Land Buddhism is known as Jodo in Japan.
In
contrast to the current very clear division between Theravada and Mahayana
schools, it must be noted that for many centuries, monasteries in India were
filled with monks of both traditions. It was considered a very personal
decision to choose for individual liberation or Buddhahood. The monastic and
ordination rules are virtually the same, and the teachings overlap to a great
extent.
Tantrayana
Buddhism:
Around
the 6th century AD, within the Mahayana tradition the tantras or
tantric texts emerged. Based firmly on the Hinayana and Mahayana tradition, the
actual philosophy differs only slightly from the Mahayana, but the practices
can be quite different.
Prior to engaging in tantric practices, a proper understanding of the Hinayana
and Mahayana philosophy is considered essential. Only then should one obtain
initiation or permission from a qualified tantric master to do a specific
tantric practice.
Tantric practices are psychologically very profound techniques to quickly
achieve Buddhahood. This is considered important, not for oneself, but because
as a Buddha one has the best achievable qualities to help others. The
motivation is: 'the faster I can achieve Buddhahood, the sooner I can be of
maximum benefit to others'.
Depending
on the class of tantra, extra vows may need to be taken on top of the Refuge
and Bodhisattva vows. Also, specific commitments may be required like doing a
specific retreat, daily recitation of mantras or a daily meditation practice.
In
the 8th. century, the Mahayana and Tantrayana (or Vajrayana) traditions of
(North) Indian Buddhism were introduced into Tibet. In fact, only in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia a virtually complete set of
tantric teachings was preserved. The Tibetan tradition can also be found in
the Himalayan range of Ladakh (Northwest India), Sikkhim (Northeast India) and
Nepal, and in Mongolia (which is virtually identical to the Tibetan tradition).
In China and countries like Korea and Japan, remnants of Vajrayana can be
found.
The
term Sutrayana is used within the Mahayana to indicate the non-tantric
Mahayana teachings.
*****
Dear Friends,
Some diagrams and maps are not coming in this document. Hence, I will mail the same in to your mail IDs.
Yadagiri.
