Tuesday, 21 October 2014

KEY to the CSP-2015 Indian History and Culture Test 1 Dated 15.10.2014

     KEY to the CSP-2015 Indian History and Culture Test 1 Dated 15.10.2014
1.
C
21.
C
41.
B
61.
D
81
B
2.
B
22.
D
42.
A
62.
A
82
A
3.
D
23.
A
43.
D
63.
C
83
D
4.
A
24.
C
44.
B
64.
A
84
D
5.
C
25.
D
45.
D
65.
B
85
B
6.
C
26.
A
46.
D
66.
D
86
A
7.
C
27.
A
47.
D
67.
B
87
C
8.
A
28.
C
48.
D
68.
D
88
B
9.
D
29.
B
49.
C
69.
A
89
A
10.
D
30.
B
50.
A
70.
C
90
A
11.
B
31.
A
51.
D
71
A
91
C
2.
A
32.
B
52.
C
72
A
92
A
13.
D
33.
D
53.
A
73
B
93
B
14.
C
34.
A
54.
C
74
A
94
D
15.
C
35.
D
55.
A
75
A
95
D
16.
C
36.
C
56.
D
76
C
96
C
17.
B
37.
A
57.
D
77
D
97
A
18.
A
38.
D
58.
B
78
D
98
D
19.
D
39.
D
59.
B
79
A
99
A
20.
C
40.
D
60.
A
80
C
100
C

Explanation:
1. The Indus Valley Civilisation is one of the oldest ancient civilizations flourished in the world during 2700 to 1700 BC and contemporary to Nile River and Tigris and Euphrates civilizations. It was the biggest civilization of its time.. It spread across the North-Western and Northern parts of subcontinent and even parts of Afghanistan. The map showing the spread of IVC is given as under. The northern most part of IVC is Manda J and K, Southern most part is Daimabad in Maharastra, Eastern most part is Alamgiripur in UP and Western most part is Sutkajendaro in Pakistan. The spread of the IVC is depicted in the following two maps.











Spread and some cities of Indus valley Civilization.
2 to 4 & 8. You can read any reputed source to find out findings in different sites of IVC. Citadel means fortification around the settlement. All the cities had citadel except Chanhu-daro.  All the cities in IVC were built on high raised flat forms to avoid inundation of the settlement during floods and flat surfaces even if flood water enters, it would exit easily. The western civilizations used to call Indus region as “Meluha”. Dockyard is a port. Pot burial is burry of dead in a pot. Dog burial is burial of dog along with its master. Coffin burial is burry of dead in a coffin (Sevapetika in telugu). Joint burial is burry of both wife and husband in a same grave. You can also observe, river banks on which different cities of IVC had flourished.  
6. The chief crops grown by IVC people were barley and wheat, but they were not aware of Sugar Cane. Evidences available to prove that they had cultivated cotton, Rice, Dates and grapes.
7. Presence of three horns is not unique to IVC. It was observed n other civilizations such as Mesopotamia and Egypt. 
9. Indus Valley people were experts in different manufacturing activities such as pottery, bead making, seal and terracotta making, weaving of cotton and cloth, and Jewellery made of gold, silver and precious stones. These industries flourished in different cities of IVC.
12. Paleolithic age is one where main implements used by man were made of stone. [Paleo means old and lithic means stone]. During Lower Paleolithic age, people used very rough chopping tools [cutting tools], Hand axes [Chethi goddali in Telugu, where stone is fixed to wood/stick] and Cleavers [Gokudu raallu in Telugu] made of stone. There no much technique in making and using these tools. In the next stage in Middle Paleolithic age, they improved the tools and made on flakes and further improved during Upper Paleolithic age and used larger flakes and blades. The next age was Mesolithic where people used polished and small stone tools, Microliths.  The next one is Neolithic where people started using wheel and made various tools using metals such as copper, iron etc.
14. Rig Veda is the first among the Vedas and oldest. It contains hymns (Songs or poems) in praise of Gods. The maximum hymns were composed in the name of Lord Indra, followed by Agni, Sun etc. The Trinity of Hinduism, Bramha, Vishnu and Maheswara were not existing/nor prominent during Vedic period. Lord Vishnu was worshipped as one of the forms of Sun God. The Yajur Veda, second in series, contains the rituals and hymns to be followed and sung while doing puja/ yagna etc.  The tunes for the hymns of Rig-Veda were found in Sama Veda. It is the source of all musical notes. [You know that all music is derived from seven letters, Sa, Ri, ga, ma, pa, da, and ni. They will used in different permutations and combinations to derive 64 melakartha ragas or tunes which will be translated into song or poems by using literature]. And the last among the Vedas was “Atharvana Veda” which consists of Charms and spells popularly called as “black magic”.

17 and 19. During Vedic times, cows were the source of income and that was the main symbol of wealth. Hence, the person having more cows, called as Gomath [name indicates the same meaning] was considered as wealthy and role of the King was also to protect the main wealth of the people, i.e, Cows. The valuable things only stolen or robbed, now may be gold/cash, but, during the Vedic times, cows.  [We had seen in villages till 10 to 15 years before the major stealing would be cows and sheep and in some villages even now]. The concept of Standing Army had developed during the later part of the Indian History. Bimbisara, the Haryanka dynasty king who was ruling Magadha appears to be first king in India to maintain Standing Army to defend huge territories and to due to invention and exploitation of iron ore in Magadha region, warfare had become more structured with different weapons. Till Bimbisara’s time, army was pooled up at the time of war and there was no concept separate army for defending the territory and winning the battles. The concept of giving land grants was not there during Vedic times.
The people used to pay voluntary tax to the King in return for the protection extended to tribe and cows, called “Bali” and compulsory tax levied, “Bhaga”. King was not powerful during Vedic times as the major decisions were taken by “Sabha” and “Samithi”.
20 and 21. The Kingship developed hereditary and kings became powerful. All the positive aspects related to women, their right to participate in Sabha and Samithi procedures; widow remarriages were stopped and further, child marriages were started afresh. Further in the society the Varnashrama dharma has transformed into rigid caste system with an outcaste, untouchables or chandals outside the Hindu caste system.  Sacrifices became far more important and elaborate. The Gods of early Vedic period lost importance and replaced by Trinity of Hinduism –Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. The Upanishads which were compelled during this period had criticized the rituals and sacrifices and put emphasis on Karma Dharma & Moksha. The corruption and evil practices those crept into religious practices and adoption of Sanskrit as a language has took the religious sacrifices and other avenues beyond the common people.  
 Hence all the points given in both the questions are correct.
22. Use of iron plough has revolutionized agricultural production but not copper made one.
26. Know the content of these works and also their other works/contributions
27. Read a note on Neolithic culture
28. The rise of Jainism and Buddhism was against the evil and usurious religious practices with associated disabilities inflicted on the cattle and common people and against the bramhanical domination. The first thing they did was adopting the language which common people could understand. Jainism adopted Prakrith [Arthamagathi] and Buddhism adopted Pali [Magathi] as their languages. [Magadhi is a language derived name from Magadha Empire. This language was spoken in central and east India during those times. Arthamagadhi is half-magadhi and derived from same source that of magadhi. Their official names are Prakrith and Pali] Most of the Jain texts are written in Prakrith and Kannada and promoted several local languages including “Souraseni”, from which present day Marathi originated. Theraveda and Hinayana Buddhism continued to use Pali where as Mahayana Buddhism adopted Sanskrit.    
29. Buddhist councils, Presidents, Patrons, places and happenings:
Buddhist council
President
Patron, Place and year
Result
1st
Mahakasyapa
Ajathasathru, Rajagriha in 483 BC
Ananda composed “Suttapitaka” containing Buddha’s sayings and Upali composed “Vinayapitaka” containing monastic codes of Buddhism
2nd
Sabhakami
Kalasoka, Vaisali, 383 BC
There was a division of Buddhist Sangha into orthodox Theravadins or Sthavarivadins and Mahasanghikas  
3rd
Mogaliputta Tissa
[Upagupta]
Ashoka  the Great,
Pataliputra/Patna in 250 BC
It established Theravadins as the true followers. The third and last of the “Tripitakas”, “Abhidhamma Pitaka” was composed at this council.
4th
Vasumithra
Kaniska at Kashmir in 1st Century AD
Buddhists divided into two major sects- Mahayana and Hinayana. The latter include different smaller ones including Theravada Buddhism. Unlike first three councils, the deliberations were done in Sankrit [as against Pali].
 32. Buddhism and Jainism:
Similarities between Jainism and Buddhism
 Differences between Jainim and Buddhism

 (1) The source of both the religion is vedic religion and both and indebted to Upanishads
(2) Both Gautam Buddha and Mahavir belonged to princely families and not to priestly families.
(3) Both deny the existence of God.
(4) Both denied the authority of the Vedas and the necessity of performing sacrifices and rituals.
(5) Both have accepted the theories of Karma rebirth and Moksha.
(6) Both taught in the language of the common people i.e. Prakrit and not in Sanskrit which was the language of the priests.
(7) Both of them were opposed to animal sacrifices.
(8) Both of them admitted disciples from all the castes and from both sexes.
(9) Ahimsa is the prominent principle of both the religions.
(10) Both Buddhism and Jainism put stress on right conduct and right knowledge and not on religious ceremonial and ritual as the way to obtain salvation.
(11) Both, the religions came as a sort of reform of Hindu religion.
(12) Both the Religions were later on divided into two sects. Buddhism was divided into Mahayana and Hinayana. Jainism was divided into Svetambara and Digambara.
(13) Both had their own three gems or 'Tri Ratna'. Tri Ratna of Jainism were right philosophy right knowledge and right character. The Tri-Ratna of Buddhism were Budhha, Dhamma and Sangha.
(14) Both had three main religious texts. Tripitaka, i.e. Vinaypitak, Suttapitaka and Abidhamma pitak were the three religious texts of Buddhism, where as Anga i.e, Anga, Upanga and Mulgrajitha were those of the Jainism.
 (1) Difference regarding conception Moksha :
According to Buddhism, a man attains Moksha when he ends all the desires and can attain it while living in the world. But according, to Jainism Moksha is freedom from miseries and can be attained only after death.
(2) Means of attainment of Moksha:
According to Buddhist Sangha is proper for attainment of Moksha and they hate self-mortifications and severe penances. Jainism believes in fasts and severest penances.
(3) Ahimsa :
Though both emphasise the principle of Ahimsa, yet Jainism is stricter in this connection.
(4) Soul:
Buddhists do not believe in the existence of soul whereas Jainism believes the existence of soul in every living being.
(5) Regarding Conduct:
Buddhism emphasises the eight noble piths whereas Jainism emphasizes Tri-Ratna.
(6) Language of Religious texts :
Most of the Jain texts are in Sanskrit and Prakrit whereas Buddhist texts are in Pali.
(7)Their connection with Hinduism: Jain religion is nearer to Hinduism whereas Buddhism followed the policy of keeping away from Hinduism.
(8) Caste system :
Jains opposed it but Buddhism opposed and attacked vehemently.
(9) Royal support and patronage :
Buddhism received the royal support and patronage of kings like Ashoka and Kanishka. But Royal patronage was not stronger for Jainism, though individual kings such as Chandragupta Maurya and Kharavela followed and patronized. But, they did not try much for its spread within and outside India.
(10) Propagation :
Buddhism spread to foreign countries whereas Jainism did not travel outside the boundaries of India
33. Megastanese was the ambassador of Greek King, Seleucus-I to the court of Chandragupta
Maurya. He is considered to be first foreign ambassador to India. In his book, “Indica” he gave detail account of political, social, economic & religious life of India. He has divided India society into 7 castes. They were philosophers, agriculturists, soldiers, artisans, shepherds and hunters, officials in the government and spies.  This division of society was according to the occupation pursued by the people. Megasthenes refers to the general honesty of the people and says that theft or crimes were of a rare occurrence. The code of punishment was severe, mutilation for giving false evidence and death for injuring the royal artisan.
           He states that money lending or usury, famines and Slavery were non-existing in India, though facts appear to be different on these three issues. Megasthenes says that scarcity and famine were unknown to India, but Kautilya talks about various famine relief measures to be taken by the State. The Jain text, “Parishista Parvan” describes there was a famine during Chandragupta Mauryas tenure. It appears that famine might not have happened during his stay in Maghada kingdome.  Megasthenes says that slavery was absent in India. But slavery die exist in India but its form was its form was different from Europe. Kautilya mentions about nine categories of slaves and their rights. People used to inherit slaves as assets. If a lady slave begets a child with her master, the woman and her children would become free.  Money lending did exist in India at that point of time. In view of these, all the statements are correct and the right answer is D.
34. All the points from 1 to 4 are correct except 5. Ashoka the Great was very cruel in early life and hence the answer is A.       
35 and 36. The Ashokan edicts appear to be the earliest specimens of Prakrit language in India and they were engraved on rocks, on polished stones, etc. in four scripts in different parts of the Kingdom. It was Bramhi in India, Kharosti in North Western India and Greek and Aramaic in further west such as Iran etc. Hence, the statement that his edicts are only limited India is incorrect one.
The Edicts of Ashoka are a collection of 33 inscriptions on the Pillars of Ashoka as well as boulders and cave walls made by the Emperor Ashoka of the Mauryan Empire during his reign from 269 BCE to 232 BCE. These inscriptions are dispersed throughout the areas of modern-day Bangladesh, India, Nepal and Pakistan and represent the first tangible evidence ofBuddhism. The edicts describe in detail the Ashoka's view about dhamma, an earnest attempt to solve some of problems that a complex society faced. According to the edicts, the extent of Buddhist proselytism during this period reached as far as the Mediterranean, and many Buddhist monuments were created.
The Edicts are divided into:
·         Major Rock Edicts: 14 Edicts (termed 1st to 14th) and 2 separate ones found in Odisha
·         Minor Rock Inscriptions: Minor Rock Edicts, the Queen's Edict, Barabar Caves inscriptions and the Kandahar bilingual inscription.
·         Pillar Edicts: Seven Edicts.
These inscriptions proclaim Ashoka's adherence to the Buddhist philosophy which, as in Hinduism is called dharma, "Law". The inscriptions show his efforts to develop the Buddhist dharma throughout his kingdom. Although Buddhism and theGautama Buddha are mentioned, the edicts focus on social and moral precepts rather than specific religious practices or the philosophical dimension of Buddhism.
In these inscriptions, Ashoka refers to himself as "Beloved of the Gods" (Devanampiyadasi) The identification of Devanampiyadasi with Ashoka was confirmed by an inscription discovered in 1915 by C. Beadon, a British gold-mining engineer, at Maski, a village in Raichur district of Karnataka. Another minor rock edict is found at the village Gujarra in Datia district of Madhya Pradesh. This also shows the name "Ashoka" in addition to usual "Devanampiyadasi". The inscriptions found in the eastern part of India were written in Magadhi Prakrit using the Brahmi script. These edicts were deciphered by British archaeologist and historian James Prinsep.
The inscriptions revolve around a few recurring themes: Ashoka's conversion to Buddhism, the description of his efforts to spread Buddhism, his moral and religious precepts, and his social and animal welfare program.
40. Espionage or spying is at its peak during Mauryan time and separate Department was meant for it. It consisted of “gudapurushas” [Secret Agents] under the control of “Mahamatyapasarpa”. They correspond to “Pativedakas” and “Pulisanis” of Ashokan edicts. According to Arthasastra of Kautilya, all kinds of people in the country, including students, beggars with sharp mind were utilized as spies. Idle business persons, woman, mendicants etc were utilized as spies to know the real happenings in different parts of the country and take corrective measures wherever required. Even spies on spies were also employed to cross check the facts. The king used to change several beds during night time to escape from probable attacks or treachery.
50 and 57: Fahien was the first Chinese pilgrim to visit India and stayed 10 yrs. in India. He came to India by land route through Gobi Desert, the pamir plateau, Swath and Gandhara and returned to China by Sea route. He had translated some of the Buddhist texts to Chinese from Sanskrit, one of the most important among them was “Maha Parinirvana Sutra”. He was the author of famous book, “Record of Buddhist Kingdoms”. Fa-hein had travelled extensively in India and therefore right option is A for question 50.
51. Allahabad Prashasthi was composed by Harisena, Chief Commander of Samudra Gupta portraying him as Great Administrator and conqueror who won hundred battles, Mehroli iron pillar inscription talks about greatness of Chandra Gupta Vikramaditya II and his victory against sakas.  Similarly, Eran copper plate inscription found in Allahabad issued by Bhanu Gupta.  It is the first written recorded evidence on the custom of Sati.  All these three are sources of Gupta Kings and their achievements. 
 However, the Aihole inscription found at the Megoti temple in Karnataka has a great significance history of India and describing the achievements of Pulakesi II, a western Chalukyan King.  It describes that victory of Pulakesi II over Harshavardhana of Pushabuti Dynasty, victory of Chalukyas on Pallavas and shifting of capital from Aihole to Badami by Pulakesi II. This inscription mentions about poet Kalidas.  It is written in Sanskrit and it is in Kannada script.  Hence, the answer is D.
56. The Gupta Kingdom was started by Sri Gupta. The kings who followed him were Gatotkacha Gupta, Chandragupta-I [319-334AD], Samudra Gupta [335-380 AD], Chandragupta-II [380- 414 AD], Kumara Gupta-I [414-467 AD], and Skanda Gupta [455-467 AD]   

65. During the Gupta period, trade with Romans reached peak and also declined during the
same period due to the attacks of Huns.  The important ports were Babaricum in Sindh in West
and Thamralipthi on the East Coast.  Madhura was the most important centre known for best
quality cloth called Sataka and  Gangadhara for woolen textiles. The book “Periplus of the
 Erithrean Sea” [literary meaning, daily activity in the Red Sea] was a illustrious account on the
trade between India and Rome and author of the same  is not known. 

66. Mouryas were the first kings to start issue of land grants and this was first time started in
South India by the Satavahanas.  However, land grants to civil servants first time started by
Guptas and they used to discharge civil, military and judicial functions on the behalf of the King.
The land grants made by the  Gupta Kings to the temples were called Brahmadayas /
Devadayas; land grants to Brahmins were called Agraharas, the grantiees are called Bhoktas
and Bhugatas. According to many theories the Gupta land grant system was responsible for the
beginning of Feudalism in India.
           
67. Deva Matrukas were the most fertile tracts of the empire and always under cultivation.
 Krushinala means tillers of the soil and Anirvasitha meant Independent Sudra cultivators.  The
revenue assessment methods were Kulyavapa (conventional crop sharing).  Dronavapa (crop
estimation) and Nirvatana (revenue of plough).  

73. Guptas were followers of Hinduism, but had tolerance for the other religions such as Buddhism.
      75. The court of Chandra Gupta Vikramadithya II was adorned by Nine Exponents,             
      famously called Nava Ratnas and the court of Krishnadevaraya was adorned by 8 poets
      called“Astadiggajas”. But all the Navaratnas were not poets and they were experts in different
      fields. Some of them such as Kalidas were poets. You may know about all of them and their
      field of expertise.  

77. The ultimate of aim of Jains is to attain “Moksha” or “Kaivalyam” or salvation from the human life.  They do extreme fasting and kills themselves at the end of it. This is called “Sallekhana Vrata”. According to Jainism, Parshavanatha, 23rd Thirthankar has proposed four principles, 1. Non-violence [Ahimha], 2. No lies/Truthfullness [Satya], 3.Non-stealing [Asteya] and 4. Non- possession of property/wealth [Aparigraha]. Mahavira, the 24th and most famous thirthankara, added fifth principle, 5. Celibacy [Bramhacharya]. The Jain monks follow these five principles in true and spirit in a severe way, then they are called “Maha vratas” and these principles would be called “Anu-vratas” if they are observed by common people to the extent they can follow, i.e., in a lighter way.  The observation of fast by the Jains on the day of full moon is called “POSADHA”.
79. Gather the complete details of various stupas, chaithays and viharas of Buddhism in India and their specialties. This is a potential area for future questions.
81. Acharya Nagarjuna (c. 150 – c. 250 CE) was believed to have born in Brahmin family from South, especially from Andhra around present day, Guntur district. He taught and served as head of Nalanda University, hence the title acharya. His original name appears to be Srimantha. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosophers after Gautama Buddha or second Buddha. Along with his disciple Āryadeva, he is considered to be the founder of the Madhyamaka school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. It describes the “Sunya Siddhantha” or “theory of emptiness” in human life and suggested middle path in life. He is believed to have recovered teachings of Gauthama Buddha, from Nagas who were given custody of Buddha’s teachings by Buddha himself for safe custody till second Buddha comes to explain and propagate the same to the public and therefore the title, Nāgārjuna. He is also credited with developing the philosophy of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras and, in some sources, with having revealed these scriptures in the world, having recovered them from the nāgas (snake-people). Furthermore, he is traditionally supposed to have written several treatises on “Rasayana Alchemy” [technique to convert any metal into gold and invention of elixir of life]. He is credited to have been proposed the theory of relativism. It is believed that Nagarjuna was advisor to a Satavahana King, Yagnisri Satakarni who ruled Satavahana Empire during 167 to 196 CE and on the basis Nagarjuna would have lived during 150 to 250 CE.
        83.  The Mehrauli iron pillar belongs to the Chandragupta vikramaditya II and not Samudra Gupta. The Mahrauli Iron Pillar was originally placed on a hill near the Beas and was brought to Delhi by a King of Delhi the Gupta Empire by Radhakumud Mookerji. This pillar credits Chandragupta with the following:
Ø  Conquest of the Vanga Countries by his battling alone against the confederacy of the enemies united against him.
Ø  Conquest of Vahlakas in a fight that ran across seven mouths of Sindhu.
Ø  Spread his fame to southern seas.
Ø  Attained Ekadhirajjyam (United Kingdom) by prowess of his arms.
Ø  This pillar was established by Chandragupta as Vishnupada in the honor of Lord Vishnu.
            The Mehrauli iron pillar located near Kutubminar and the inscription issued by Chandragupta vikaramaditya II on it in Sanskrit and bramhi Script. Several other inscriptions are engraved on it, but the oldest is Chandragupta’s II.

The Sultanganj Buddha is a Gupta-Pala transitional period sculpture, the largest substantially complete copper Buddha figure known from this time. The statue is dated by archaeologists to between 500 to 700 AD. It is 2.3m high and 1m wide, weighs over 500 kg. It was found in the North Indian town of Sultanganj, Bhagalpur district, Bihar in 1861 during the construction of the East Indian Railway.
It is presently located in Birmingham Museum & art gallery, Birmingham, UK.











86. Ajanta and Ellora Caves
The first Buddhist cave monuments at Ajanta date from the 2nd and 1st centuries B.C. During the Gupta period (5th and 6th centuries A.D.), many more richly decorated caves were added to the original group. The paintings and sculptures of Ajanta, considered masterpieces of Buddhist religious art, have had a considerable artistic influence.
Ajantha caves near Aurangabad of Maharastra.
The style of Ajanta has exerted a considerable influence in India and elsewhere, extending, in particular, to Java. With its two groups of monuments corresponding to two important moments in Indian history, the Ajanta cave ensemble bears exceptional testimony to the evolution of Indian art, as well as to the determining role of the Buddhist community, intellectual and religious foyers, schools and reception centres in the India of the Gupta and their immediate successors.
The caves are situated 100 km north-east of Ellora, 104 km from Aurangabad and 52 km from Jalgaon Railway Station. They are cut into the volcanic lava of the Deccan in the forest ravines of the Sahyadri Hills and are set in beautiful sylvan surroundings. These magnificent caves containing carvings that depict the life of Buddha, and their carvings and sculptures are considered to be the beginning of classical Indian art.
The 29 caves were excavated beginning around 200 BC, but they were abandoned in AD 650 in favour of Ellora. Five of the caves were temples and 24 were monasteries, thought to have been occupied by some 200 monks and artisans. The Ajanta Caves were gradually forgotten until their 'rediscovery' by a British tiger-hunting party in 1819.
The Ajanta site comprises thirty caves cut into the side of a cliff which rises above a meander in the Waghora River. Today the caves are reached by a road which runs along a terrace mid-way up the cliff, but each cave was once linked by a stairway to the edge of the water. This is a Buddhist community, comprising five sanctuaries or Chaitya-grihas (caves 9, 10, 19, 26 and 29) and monastic complex sangharamas or viharas. A first group of caves was created in the 2nd century BC: the chaitya-grihas open into the rock wall by doorways surmounted by a horse-shoe shaped bay. The ground plan is a basilical one: piers separate the principal nave from the side aisles which join in the apsis to permit the ritual circumambulation behind the (commemorative monument). This rupestral architecture scrupulously reproduces the forms and elements visible in wooden constructions.
A second group of caves was created at a later date, the 5th and 6th centuries AD, during the Gupta and post-Gupta periods. These caves were excavated during the supremacy of the Vakatakas and Guptas. According to inscriptions, Varahadeva, the minister of the Vakataka king, Harishena (c. AD 475-500), dedicated Cave 16 to the Buddhist sangha while Cave 17 was the gift of the prince, a feudatory. An inscription records that the Buddha image in Cave 4 was the gift of some Abhayanandi who hailed from Mathura.
The earlier architectural formulas were re-employed but treated in an infinitely richer and more ample manner. The decoration attained, at this time, an unequalled splendour: the statuary is numerous (it was already permissible to represent Buddha as a human; these representations are found both on the facades and in the interior). Finally, the wall painting, profuse and sensitive, constitutes, no doubt, the most striking artistic achievement of Ajanta.
Under the impulse of the Gupta dynasty, Indian art in effect reached its apogee. The Ajanta Caves are generally decorated with painted or sculpted figures of supple form and classic balance with which the name of the dynasty has remained synonymous. The refined lightness of the decoration, the balance of the compositions, the marvellous beauty of the feminine figures place the paintings of Ajanta among the major achievements of the Gupta and post-Gupta style and confer on them the ranking of a masterpiece of universal pictorial art.
The cave temples and monasteries at Ellora, excavated out of the vertical face of an escarpment, are 26 km north of Aurangabad. Extending in a linear arrangement, the 34 caves contain Buddhist Chaityas or halls of worship, and Viharas, or monasteries, Hindu and Jai temples.
Spanning a period of about 600 years between the 5 th and 11 th century AD, the earliest excavation here is of the Dhumar Lena (Cave 29).The most imposing excavation is, without doubt, that of the magnificent Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) which is the largest monolithic structure in the world. Interestingly, Ellora, unlike the site of Ajanta, was never 'rediscovered'. Known as Verul in ancient times, it has continuously attracted pilgrims through the centuries to the present day.
Ellora has been designed as a World Heritage Site, to be preserved as an artistic legacy that will continue to inspire and enrich the lives of generations to come.
List of caves and religion they belong to:
Buddhist Caves: built during 5th Century to 7th century AD Caves 1 to 12 at the Southern end.
Hindu Caves    : built during 8th Century to 10th century AD Caves13 to 29 in the middle
Jain Caves       : built during 9th Century to 11th century AD Caves 30 to 34 at the Northern end
87. India's Hindu temple architecture is developed from the creativity of Sthapathis and Shilpis, both of whom belong to the larger community of craftsmen and artisans called Vishwakarma (caste). A small Hindu temple consists of an inner sanctum, the garbha graha or womb-chamber, in which the idol or deity is housed, often called circumambulation, a congregation hall, and sometimes an antechamber and porch. The garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum is crowned by a tower-like shikara.
All the Hindu temples in India follow the architecture defined in Shilpa Shastras. However, there are artistic variations in terms of construction of shikara depending on regional culture.

Kandariya Mahadeva temple of Chandela dynasty: Terms in Temple architecture
In design/plan of a temple, several parts of Temple architecture are considered, most common amongst these are:
1. Adhisthana: A base platform on which further platform is raised. It is present in all temples

2. Jagati: It is a raised surface, platform or terrace upon which the temple is placed.

3. Antarala: Antarala is a small anti-chamber or foyer between the garbhagriha (shrine) and the mandapa. It is common feature of north Indian temples.

4. Mandapa / Mandapam: It refers to pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals. Based on the location and purpose, they are called with different names as under
Ø  Ardha Mandapam — intermediary space between the temple exterior and the garba griha (sanctum sanctorum) or the other mandapas of the temple
Ø  Maha Mandapam — (Maha=big) When there are several mandapas in the temple, it is the biggest and the tallest and generally adjoining the sanctum sanctorum. It is used for conducting religious discourses.
Ø  Asthana Mandapam — assembly hall
Ø  Kalyana Mandapam — dedicated to ritual marriage celebration of the Lord with Goddess
Ø  Nandi Mandapam (or Nandi mandir) - In the Shiva temples, pavilion with a statue of the sacred bull Nandi, looking at the statue or the lingam of Shiva. [In some south Indian Temples, for eg. Srirangam Ranganatha swamy Temple, Garuda or the vehicle of Vishnu has similar mandapa]
5. Garbhagriha or sanctum sanctorum or Sreekovil:
Sreekovil or Garbhagriha the part in which the idol of the deity in a Hindu temple is installed. The area around is referred as to the Chuttapalam, which generally includes other deities and the main boundary wall of the temple. Typically there is also a Pradikshna area in the Garbagriha  and one outside the garbagriha, where devotees can take Pradakshinas or around Deity or around Garbagriha.
6. Śikhara or Vimanam: It literally means "mountain peak", refer to the rising tower over the sanctum sanctorum where the presiding deity is enshrined is the most prominent and visible part of a Hindu temples. It is very tall in South Indian temples and smaller in North Indian temples. Around this tower, different depictions of the various statues and figurines and sometimes different Gods or erotic figures depicting several themes as in Khajarao temples etc.
7. Amalaka: It is a stone or metal disk, often with ridges, that sits on a temple's main tower (Sikhara). The amalaka of Brihadiswara or Rajarajeswara Temple of Tanjore built by chola Emperor, Raja Raja the Great, in1010 AD, is made of single stone and weighs about 80 Metric tons. 
8. Gopuras / Gopurams:  They are the elaborate gateway-towers of south Indian temples, not to be confused with Shikharas.

9. Urushringa: It is a subsidiary Sikhara, lower and narrower, tied against the main sikhara

10. Kalasa or Kalasam:  Hindu temples typically have Kalasam at the top of temple towers, made up of metal or stone. These Kalasam in form of inverted pot is one of the prominent symbols of temples. Periodic renewal of temple is called kumbabishekam centers around Kalasams, when elaborate rituals are performed along with renewing the temple's physical structures. The kalasams are generally made of an alloy of 5 metals including gold, silver, copper and tin and these metals give these kalasams a electro-magnetic reception. Grains like rice, salt, ragi, millet, corn, maize and sesame were poured in. And millet, especially, was used in huge quantities as the scientific knowledge then, claimed millet could conduct electro-magnetic waves. These objects act as lightning conductors and are considered to be ‘earthing’. Moreover, how many lives could be saved by these lightening conductors depends on the height of these towers. For example, if a tower is about 50 meters tall, then it would protect an area that falls in a 100 meter radius.
Once in 12 years, the grains in the temple kalasams are refilled and changed during a festival called “Kudamuzhugu Vilzha”. This is because the grains have a period of 12 years to absorb the electro-magnetic waves, after which they lose their conduciveness. Moreover, unlike these days where it rains just 3 days, it used to rain for 3 continuous months. So when all grains get wasted in the rains, the grains on top of these towers will be protected and dry and they could be used for sowing. These are the secrets of the ancient temple gopurams and our ancient scientific knowledge.
     
Different models and numbers of Kalasams at different temples
The term alwars literally   “those immersed in god” and were Tamil poet-saints of south India who espoused ‘emotional devotion’ or bhakti to Visnu-Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service. They are considered to have lived between 4200 BCE - 2700 BCE. The Vaishnava orthodoxy claim there were only 10 alwars, but other references that include Andal and Madhurakavi, making the number twelve. The religion of Alvar poets, which included a woman poet, Andal, was devotion to God through love (bhakti), and in the ecstasy of such devotions they sang hundreds of songs which embodied both depth of feeling and felicity of expressions. The collection of their hymns is known as Divya Prabandha.
The Bhakti literature that sprang from Alvars has contributed to the establishment and sustenance of a culture that broke away from the ritual-oriented Vedic religion and rooted itself in devotion as the only path for salvation. In addition they helped to make the Tamil religious life independent of knowledge of Sanskrit.  As part of the legacy of the Alvars, five Vaishnava philosophical traditions (sampradayas) have developed at the later stages. Together with the contemporary sixty three Saiva Nayanars, they are accounted as South India's 75 Apostles of Bhakti because of their importance in the rise of the Hindu Bhakti movement.
89. Pāṇini [4th century BC ] was a Sanskrit grammarian from ancient India. He was born in Pushkalavati, Gandhara, in the modern-day Charsadda of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Pāṇini is known for his Sanskrit grammar, particularly for his formulation of the 3,959 rules of Sanskrit morphology, syntax and semantics in the grammar known as Ashtadhyayi (Aṣṭādhyāyī, meaning "eight chapters"), the foundational text of the grammatical branch of the Vedanga, the auxiliary scholarly disciplines of Vedic religion [Hinduism] .
The Ashtadhyayi is one of the earliest known grammars of Sanskrit, although Pāṇini refers to previous texts like the Unadisutra,Dhatupatha, and Ganapatha. It is the earliest known work on descriptive linguistics, and together with the work of his immediate predecessors (Nirukta, Nighantu, Pratishakyas) stands at the beginning of the history of linguistics itself. His theory of morphological analysis was more advanced than any equivalent Western theory before the mid 20th century, and his analysis of noun compounds still forms the basis of modern linguistic theories of compounding, which have borrowed Sanskrit terms such as bahuvrihi and dvandva.
Pāṇini's comprehensive and scientific theory of grammar is conventionally taken to mark the end of the period of Vedic Sanskrit, introducing the period of Classical Sanskrit.
Patañjali is a Sanskrit proper name. Several important Sanskrit works are ascribed to one or more authors of this name, and a great deal of scholarship has been devoted over the last century or so to the issue of disambiguation. Amongst the more important authors called Patañjali are: The author of the Mahābhāṣya, an advanced treatise on Sanskrit grammar and linguistics framed as a commentary on Kātyāyana'svārttikas (short comments) on Pāṇini's Aṣṭādhyāyī. This Patañjali's life is the only one which can be securely dated (as one of the grammatical examples he uses makes reference to the siege of the town of Sāketā by the Greeks, an event known from other sources to have taken place around 120 BCE).
·         The compiler of the Yoga Sūtras, an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice. Patanjali) is one of the 18 siddhars in the Tamil siddha (Shaiva) tradition.
·         The author of an unspecified work of medicine (āyurveda).
In some Sanskrit grammatical works, Patañjali is called "the man from Gonarda". He is held by some to have been born at the "Gonarda" situated at Thiru Kona Malai, Sri Lanka. This tradition is corroborated in Tirumular's seventh-century Tamil Tirumandhiram, which describes him as hailing from Then Kailasam (Koneswaram temple, Trincomalee), and tradition has him visiting the Thillai Nataraja Temple, Chidambaram, where he wrote the Charana Shrungarahita Stotram on Nataraja.
Amara Sinha (or Simha) (c. AD 375) was a Sanskrit grammarian and poet, of whose personal history hardly anything is known. He is said to have been "one of the nine gems that adorned the throne of Vikramaditya," and according to the evidence of Hsuan Tsang, this is the Chandragupta Vikramaditya (Chandragupta II) that flourished about AD 375. Other sources describe him as flourishing in c. AD 700.
Amara seems to have been a Buddhist, and most of his work was destroyed, with the exception of what is the celebrated Amara-Kosha (Treasury of Amara), a vocabulary of Sanskrit roots, in three books, and hence sometimes called Trikanda or the "Tripartite". It is also known as "Namalinganushasana".
It contains 10,000 words, and is arranged, like other works of its class, in metre, to aid the memory. The first chapter of the Kosha was printed at Rome in Tamil character in 1798. An edition of the entire work, with English notes and an index by HT Colebrooke, appeared at Serampore in 1808. The Sanskrit text was printed at Calcutta in 1831. A French translation by ALA Loiseleur-Deslongchamps as published at Paris in 1839. Louie Rice compiled the Kannada version of it and its available 4th edition was printed in 1927 which contains three khandas and 25 sargas
Chandragomin (Skt. Candragomin) was a renowned 7th century CE Indian Buddhist lay master and scholar who dressed in the white robes of the Yogic tradition and mastered the morality of the five precepts. He was born into a Kshatriya family in the northern Varendra region which is now a part of Bangladesh. He was most famous for his debate of Candrakīrti (600–c. 650), the Arya Tripitaka Master Shramana who was the Khenpo at NalandaMahāvihāra Monastery. Their debate was said to have gone on for many years. Chandragomin held the Chittamatra (consciousness-only or Yogachara school) view, and Chandrakirti gave his interpretation of Nāgārjuna's view, eventually creating a new school of Madhyamaka known as Prasangika. This Nalanda tradition school is known as Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka or rendered in English as the "Consequentialist" or "Dialecticist" school.
91. During the Sangam age [2nd century BC to 3rd century AD], there were three important kingdoms ruling South India. They were Cheras of Malabar coast/Kerala, Cholas of South East coast with capitals at Uraiyur and Kaveripatnam  and Pandyas of Central Tamil Nadu with Madurai and Kamatapura as capitals. Senguttavan or Red chera is most popular king among Cheras and he was first to construct temple for Kannagi and first to introduce “Pattini cult”. Among the cholas, Karaikala Chola was the greatest and he had constructed dam across river Cauvery and fort city, Kaveripatnam. Among the Pandyas, Nedujelian was the greatest who had performed Aswamedhayaga. These three dynasties participated in the Sangam meetings, a confluence of Scholars/poets. It is legend that first Sangam meeting was convened by Sage Agastya [considered to be first Aryan who had crossed vindyas], but however all the known Sangam Literature belong to 2nd and 3rd Sangams.
 You must know the important works and themes/content of the important Sangam Literature such as 1. Early works, 2. Eight Anthologies, called “Ettutogai” [ettu means 8 in Tamil], 3. Ten short poems, called Pattu Pathu [Pattu means 10 in Tamil], 4. 18 minor works, Paddunekki Kanakkalu and 5. Three Epics.
The 3 Epics of Sangam literature are Silappadikaram or The Jewelled Anklet, Manimeghalai and Saivaga  Chintamani.
100. Different kinds of Buddhism and their presence in the contemporary world:  
Theravada one of the non-Mahayana sects of Buddhism which was spread from India to its southern nieghbours, Sri Lanka and extended neighbours such as South East Asia, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Korea etc. Mahayana Buddhism spread to north of India to China, Japan, Mangolia, Russia etc. The Vajrayana Buddhism is one of the forms of Mahayan Buddhism prevalent in Tibet, Bhutan and Mangolia. Neobuddhism is a concept that emerged in India with historical adoption of Buddhism by Dr. Ambedkar and several dalits along with him.
Additional Information:
Theravada and Hinayana:
Theravada tradition is based on the set of teachings decided by the Third Council to contain the teachings of the Buddha.
Shri Lanka has played a central role in preserving the Theravada scriptures and practices. After the Third Council, the Tripitaka collections of sutras were taken to Shri Lanka. Most of these were originally in the Pali language, but some were compiled in other languages. Through the centuries however, all teachings were translated into Pali (around 35 BCE). Initially, most ordained Sangha were known as parivrajahas (wanderers). They would assemble during the rainy season when travelling became problematic. Gradually, buildings were donated and the Sangha became more static. Just a century after the Buddha passed away, monasteries became the main mechanism for preservation of the teachings. Also extra monastic rules were introduced. Only during one short period in history Buddhism was banned in Shri Lanka, but it was later restored with teachings from Thailand which in turn had originated in Shri Lanka. The main countries where the Theravada tradition is currently alive and well in Shri Lanka, Thailand, Burma, Cambodia and Laos. 
The teachings on the Four Noble Truths and meditation form the basis of Theravada practice.
The term Hinayana (smaller Vehicle) appeared only much later, around the first century CE, when teachings of a different nature appeared which were called Mahayana (greater Vehicle).
In India, non-Mahayana or Hinayana sects developed independent from the form of Buddhism existing in Sri Lanka. Today, there is no Hinayana tradition in existence anywhere, although Theravada could be called the tradition most like Hinayana. The ultimate goal of the Theravadin and other non-Mahayana practice is to attain the state of an Arhat, as Buddhahood is considered practically unachievable for nearly everyone within this aeon.
Although helping other sentient beings is accepted as an important Buddhist practice, the main motivation for following the spiritual path is to achieve liberation for oneself - Nirvana.
Due to the negative connotation of the term Hinayana, the World Fellowship of Buddhists decided that the term Hinayana should be dropped to refer to Buddhism existing today, and the term Theravada should be applied, also because the term Hinayana has a negative connotation.
Mahayana:
The Mahayana appears to have developed between the 1st Century BC to the 1st Century CE. About the 2nd Century CE Mahayana became clearly defined. Master Nagarjuna developed the Mahayana philosophy of Sunyata (emptiness) and proved that everything is 'Void' (not only the self) in a small text called Madhyamika-karika. After the 1st Century CE., the Mahayanists took a definite stand and only then the terms of Mahayana and Hinayana were introduced.
Around the first century CE, teachings of a different style appeared. The terms Mahayana and Hinayana appeared in the Saddharma Pundarika Sutra or the Sutra of the Lotus of the Good Law. Of great influence to the development of the Mahayana was Master Nagarjuna (2nd Century CE) who is known for his profound teachings on the philosophy of emptiness. About the 4th Century CE, the Masters Asanga and Vasubandhu wrote enormous amount of works on Mahayana. The Mahayana teachings were mainly written down in Sanskrit, and are now called the Mahayana Sutras.

A clear division arose between the schools following the traditional teachings and Mahayana. Although the main philosophical differences may be small, they have profound consequences for the practices involved.
The Mahayana philosophy is based on the older tradition and fully accepts these teachings, but not all traditional interpretations. One of the most important aspects is for example the traditional interpretation that Buddhahood can be achieved only by very few people. The Mahayana teaches instead that every sentient being (being with a mind) can become a Buddha, the only thing preventing our full enlightenment is the failure to improve one's own actions and state of mind. The Mahayana tradition claims that all their sutras have been taught directly by Shakyamuni Buddha or have at least been inspired by the Buddha.
The main Mahayana motivation is to lead all sentient beings to enlightenment. Liberation from cyclic existence (Nirvana) and Buddhahood for oneself are regarded simply as fortunate by-products of one's efforts to help all beings. In fact, the only possible motivation with which one can become a Buddha is the altruistic wish to lead all sentient beings away from suffering.
This motivation is reflected in taking an additional set of vows, known as Bodhisattva vows on top of taking Refuge. The main vow is to free all sentient beings from suffering. These vows are not taken for this life only, but for all future lives as well, until this goal is achieved. The main practices of a Mahayanist are summarised in the 6 perfections: the perfection of giving, ethics, patience, joyous effort, concentration and wisdom.
The Mahayana tradition mainly developed in North India, and spread further North into China and Tibet. In China, Buddhist philosophy and practice was often mixed with Taoist and Confucian aspects. Via China, Mahayana Buddhism also spread to other countries like Korea, Vietnam, Cambodia, Laos and Japan. Also, in China the Ch'an tradition evolved, which was introduced into Japan, and there developed into Zen. Also, the very popular Pure Land Buddhism developed, which focuses on being reborn in the Pure Land of Amitabha, mainly through recitation of Amitabha Buddha's name. Pure Land Buddhism is known as Jodo in Japan.
In contrast to the current very clear division between Theravada and Mahayana schools, it must be noted that for many centuries, monasteries in India were filled with monks of both traditions. It was considered a very personal decision to choose for individual liberation or Buddhahood. The monastic and ordination rules are virtually the same, and the teachings overlap to a great extent.
Tantrayana Buddhism:
Around the 6th century AD, within the Mahayana tradition the tantras or tantric texts emerged. Based firmly on the Hinayana and Mahayana tradition, the actual philosophy differs only slightly from the Mahayana, but the practices can be quite different.
Prior to engaging in tantric practices, a proper understanding of the Hinayana and Mahayana philosophy is considered essential. Only then should one obtain initiation or permission from a qualified tantric master to do a specific tantric practice.
Tantric practices are psychologically very profound techniques to quickly achieve Buddhahood. This is considered important, not for oneself, but because as a Buddha one has the best achievable qualities to help others. The motivation is: 'the faster I can achieve Buddhahood, the sooner I can be of maximum benefit to others'. 
Depending on the class of tantra, extra vows may need to be taken on top of the Refuge and Bodhisattva vows. Also, specific commitments may be required like doing a specific retreat, daily recitation of mantras or a daily meditation practice.
In the 8th. century, the Mahayana and Tantrayana (or Vajrayana) traditions of (North) Indian Buddhism were introduced into Tibet. In fact, only in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia a virtually complete set of tantric teachings was preserved. The Tibetan tradition can also be found in the Himalayan range of Ladakh (Northwest India), Sikkhim (Northeast India) and Nepal, and in Mongolia (which is virtually identical to the Tibetan tradition). In China and countries like Korea and Japan, remnants of Vajrayana can be found.
The term Sutrayana is used within the Mahayana to indicate the non-tantric Mahayana teachings.

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Dear Friends,
Some diagrams and maps are not coming in this document. Hence, I will mail the same in to your mail IDs.
Yadagiri. 
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